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Practical 
Up-To-Date Plumbing 



BY 

GEORGE B. CLOW 



OVER 180 ILLUSTRATIONS 




CHICAGO 
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS 






Copyright 1922, 1914, 1912 and 1906 

by 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 



ti> 



*5> 

C2> 



PRINTED IN U. S. A. 



JAN 18*23 

)ClA69.ei73 



PREFACE 

The master plumber and steam fitter has a wide 
field of activity. His work takes him into all kinds 
of buildings where plumbing and heating apparatus 
is to be installed or repaired. The nature of his 
work requires the exercise, on his part, of good judg- 
ment and a high grade of skill in its performance. 
He is, therefore, or at least should be, consulted re- 
garding the proper fixtures to install in a new build- 
ing, or when extensive repairs are being made. Be- 
ing a skilled mechanic, he should be thoroughly- 
posted on the most modern and improved appliances 
in sanitary plumbing and heating, and be fortified 
with convincing arguments regarding their correct 
installation. It is important, therefore, and in fact 
the duty of the master plumber and steam fitter to 
become familiar with the most modern and reliable 
devices obtainable relating to his line of work, in 
order that when he, recommends and installs the ap- 
paratus it may be depended upon to give satisfactory 
service in every respect. A great responsibility rests 
with the plumber for the reason that the good health 
of the people occupying the building depends in a 
large measure upon whether or not the work over 
which he has supervision is properly installed, and 
whether or not correct devices are being used. His 
own reputation and success in his business depend 
also upon the character of his work and the kind of 
material he uses. The excuse may be offered that 
by far the largest portion of his work is out of sight 



Preface 

and therefore it will make no great difference if 
it is not just up to the standard, but the very fact 
that conditions make it necessary for the plumber 
to do most of his important work in places and loca- 
tions that are generally inaccessible, and inconvenient 
to work in, makes it the more imperative that the 
devices and apparatus used, and the work of installa- 
tion be absolutely perfect on the part of the plumber. 



CONTENTS 

I. House Drainage. Requirements of sewer pipe 
within foundation walls. Connection between iron 
pipe and vitrified soil pipe. Vent opening. Connec- 
tion to main sewer. Size of house sewers. Rain 
leaders. Capacity of drain pipe under different 
amounts of fall. 

II. Cellar or Basement Drains. Methods of In- 
stallation. Back water valve. Drainage for barn, 
garage and other out buildings. Combination floor 
drain and trap for hospital operating rooms. Com- 
bination floor strainer and back water seal. 

III. Roughing In. Vertical section of two-story 
and basement plumbing system. Cutting soil pipe. 
Making soil pipe joints. Plumbing for a three tene- 
ment building. Roof construction. Pipe supports. 
Fresh air inlets. Roughing in plan for basement of 
store or office building. Plumbing of a modern fire 
engine house. 

IV. Traps. Syphon traps, and anti-syphon traps. 
S trap. Three-quarter S trap. Drum trap. Cudell 
trap. Bower trap. 

V. Solder. Composition and properties of. How 
to test quality of. How to extract zinc from solder. 
Flowing of solder. How to make good wiping solder. 
Proper appearance of, when in bar. Burning of, 
how to prevent. Soldering fluxes. Tinning brass 
and iron pipes. 



Contents 

VI. Preparing Wiped Joints. Importance of 
proper preparation. Three methods of preparing ends 
of pipes illustrated and explained. Joint wiping, in- 
structions for. Horizontal joints. Branch joints. 
Wiping upright joints. Wiped joints on copper pipes. 
Autogenous soldering or lead burning. 

VII. Drainage Fittings. Soil and waste pipe fit- 
tings. Sanitary bend. T branch soil pipes; right 
and left hand inlets. Sanitary T branch, Y branch 
and half Y branch. Plain cross, sanitary cross, dou- 
ble Y and double half Y branches. Ventilating cap, 
Y saddle hub and half Y saddle hub. T branch, 
sanitary T branch and Y branch with trap-screw. 
Running traps. Lead traps. Hopper traps. Sewer 
gas, and back water traps. Clean-outs. 

VIII. Sanitary Plumbing. The bath room. Bath 
tubs. Recess porcelain bath. Sitz bath. Foot bath. 
Combination needle, shower and douche bath. Com- 
bination three post needle and shower bath. Factory 
shower baths. Shower temperature regulating valve. 
Lavatories. Public drinking fountains. Closets, 
noiseless syphon jet, witroware noiseless and high 
tank. Connections for wash-out closet. Closets for 
public buildings and industrial plants. 

IX. Plumbing for Modern Fire Proof Buildings. 
Water closets. The Expedio wall closet. Installation 
in batteries. Pitch coupling. Air controlled flushing 
valves. Modern type urinals. 

X. Water Service. Tapping street main. Service 
pipe. Stop cock in building. Service pipes in build- 
ing. Water test. Air pressure test. Smoke test. 
Peppermint test. Wrought iron pipe. Gallons of 



Contents 

water delivered per minute by various sizes of serv- 
ice pipes under various pressures. Pressure of water 
at different elevations. Weight of copper and brass 
pipes per foot. 

XI. Hot Water Supply. Cylinder system. Cold 
water supply pipe. Draw off pipes. Flow pipe. 
Return pipe. Cylinder-tank system. Hot water 
plumbing. Arrangement of fixtures for three floors. 
Noise in pipes, causes of and remedies. Water back 
for kitchen stove. Causes of explosion. Methods 
of connection. Gas heated water device and how to 
connect. Connections to vertical, and horizontal 
boilers. Combination reservoir and heater. 

XII. Plumbers Tools. Blow-torches and solder 
pots. Apparatus for thawing frozen water pipes. 
Caulking joints. Counter-vents from fixture traps. 

XIII. Useful Information. Properties of water; 
unit of measure for. Weight of, at different tem- 
peratures. Pressure of still water in lbs. per sq. in. 
against the sides of a pipe or other vessel; rules 
for finding. Point of maximum density. Discharge 
of water, and rules for finding size of pipes. How to 
figure the capacity of a barrel. How to find the 
weight of any length of lead pipe when diameter and 
thickness of the lead are known. How to make a 
strong cement. Making steam tight joints. Table 
of diameters, circumferences, areas, squares and 
cubes. Chicago plumbing code. 

XIV. Electrical Thawing Apparatus. Automatic 
sewage ejector. Shone pneumatic sewage ejector. 
Disposal of sewage. 

XV. Country Water Supply. Compressed air sys- 
tem, advantages of. Steel storage tank, Hydraulic 
system. Use of hydraulic rams. 



HOUSE DRAINAGE. 

The fact that plumbing during the part ten 
years has reached a most remarkable stare of de- 
velopment in the construction of improved sys- 
tems of sewerage, house drains, ventilation and 
fixtures, is due to several causes. 

In the first place, the manufacturers of plumbing 
supplies in their pursuit of commercial supremacy 
have employed a number of sanitary engineers, 
who by experimenting and investigation, have 
perfected systems and fixtures which are a pre- 
ventative against the dangers of sewer gas and 
their subsequent results, such as typhoid, scarlet 
fever, dysentery, etc., coming as they frequently 
do from no apparent cause, as far as modern 
science will permit. 

Secondly, good and safe plumbing has ceased 
to be a luxury. Its protection against the above 
mentioned diseases, and its safeguard to good 
health, have made it at necessity. Heretofore 
many earnest, well-meaning persons, not appre- 
ciating the importance of correct drainage and 
plumbing, were inclined to sacrifice this vital fac- 
tor in their buildings, and even to-day the remark 
of some builder is often heard, to the effect that 
the balance of the house has cost so much more 
7 



8 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

than was originally intended, that no more money 
than is absolutely necessary can be expended for 
the plumbing. The knu fledge and skill which ig 
employed for the construction of the rest of the 
house, should be as carefully applied to the sewer, 
ventilating, bath and toilet rooms, and their fit- 
tings. 

. Modern knowledge has taken the place of igno- 
rance and neglect, and the fixtures and systems, 
which were thorght good enough ten years ago, 
are to-day branded as old, on account of their not 
being a proper safeguard against disease. Every 
builder should weigh these facts well, and make 
himself familiar with the dangers arising from 
putting in a poor system, as even the smallest 
leak will cause sickness and often death. 

The first subject to be taken up in the plumbing 
line, is the house drain, which are the pipes which 
carry from the house the liquid and soil refuse. 
The accumulated waste from food, clothing and 
bathing, tends to decay, and must be removed 
promptly and properly, or disease will result. 
The sewer which conveys the matter from the 
dwelling, must be absolutely perfect. In all cases, 
the sewer pipe within the foundation wall, should 
be extra heavy cast-iron pipe, coated inside and 
out with hot asphaltum, and should run through 
the foundation wall, and the connection should be 
made to the vitrified sewer at least ten feet out- 
side of the building wall. The connection be- 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



9 



tween the iron and vitrified soil pipe should be 
carefully made at X and cemented tight with a 
good grade of Portland cement. A good idea is to 
incase the connection at X in a block of concrete, 
which will prevent the breaking of the joint at 
this point. 

In the drawing Fig. 1 an installation is shown 
which is commonly used by a great many plumb- 



■^i^^M^^^Sl^h^i ' 




B 



55 



8&$te fcJfiftJff ■!SWft!» l %T«r »i4 



ItzzlSj^in: 



Fig. 1. 



ers, but which has many disadvantages. The 
trap at A, which is placed in the connecting 
sewer, to prevent the ingress of foul gases from 
the main sewer, is in a poor location, on account 
of its inaccessibility. The vent opening to the 
fresh-air inlet at B ventilates the house system of 
drain pipes. This vent is often placed between 
the sidewalk and the curb, or in the front yard. 
[The vent bonnet is very liable to become loose or 



10 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

broken, which will permit of dirt, stones, and 
sticks falling into the opening so left, and choke 
the sewer, which necessitates digging down to the 
bottom to clean it out. Another objection to plac- 
ing a vent in a position such as shown, is that 
grass and other vegetation is liable to grow up 
around and into it, thereby destroying its effi- 
ciency. "When a main disconnecting trap must 
be located outside of the building and under- 
ground, there should be built a brick manhole 
around it for easy access. The manhole for this 
purpose, should be two feet and five inches in 
diameter at the base, and closed on the top with 
a limestone cover, three inches in thickness, with 
an eighteen-inch diameter round cast-iron lid, 
which should have a one-inch bearing on the stone 
all around. 

The drainage system illustrated in Fig. 2 is a 
very excellent one for a residence. The fittings 
as shown are standard stock articles, and conse- 
quently reduce the cost to a minimum. In the 
ordinary residence, a four-inch pipe is sufficiently 
large enough to carry away all of the sewerage. 
A drainage pipe must not be so large, that the 
ordinary flow of water will fail to float and carry 
away the refuse which ordinarily accompanies 
water. The pipe should be laid to grade, or a 
fall of one foot in forty feet. Care should be ex- 
ercised to allow a large enough opening in the 
wall where the pipes pass through it, and espe- 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



11 







Fig. 2. 



12 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

cially over them, to allow for setting of the wall 
without touching the pipes. 

Extra heavy cast iron soil pipe, not less than 
four inches in diameter, coated inside and out 
with hot asphaltum, should be used in all cases 
for house drainage. 

At A is shown a double-vent opening running 
trap. By calking a four-inch brass ferrule, with 
a brass-trap screw ferrule, into the hub at C, an 
opening which gives free access to the drainage 
system on the sewer end is obtained. Care should 
be taken in making this joint, and a good grade 
of spun oakum should be packed around the fer- 
rule, with an iron yarning tool. The hub should 
then be run full at one pouring with soft molten 
lead, and then thoroughly calked with a blunt 
calking iron, which will make an absolutely air- 
tight joint. The trap-screw cover should be 
screwed tightly into the ferrule with a good plia- 
ble gasket. It is very necessary that this joint be 
hermetically sealed, as the pipe X will constantly 
be loaded with sewer-gas from the main sewer, 
and any defective work s,t this joint will allow 
the gas to escape into the basement. The vent 
opening at B is to be treated in the same man- 
ner, giving an opening which permits easy access 
to the trap. 

The air vent pipe D is run at an angle of forty- 
five degrees, and the extension E, which is run 
to the surface in this particular instance, is run 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 13, 

close to the foundation wall, and the elbow calked 
on the top of the pipe, which prevents a possibil- 
ity of any sticks, stones or other debris getting 
into same and retarding a thorough circulation. 
In order to have this drainage system properly 
vented, the fresh-air inlet pipe should be the same 
size as the drain pipe. Where it is impractical 
or impossible to run this fresh-air vent up close 
to the foundation wall and turn it over as shown, 
it can be run as shown by F, and when placed in 
the yard the inlet pipe can be capped with a regu- 
lar air vent-cap fitting. Care should be taken in 
placing this fresh-air inlet, so that the chances 
of having it knocked off and broken will be as 
small as possible. 

The extension piece in all cases should be long 
enough to permit of the opening in the vent-cap 
being, at least, eight inches above the ground. 
In the drawing the sewer or drain pipe is shown 
above the floor. In cases of this kind rests or 
supports should be provided at an interval of five 
feet, or in other words at every joint, to prevent 
the same from sagging and probably breaking 
the joints. When placed underground the top of 
openings B and C should be on a level with the 
flooring. In case of a shallow sewer in the street, 
the piping can be suspended from the ceiling, 
with a good heavy hanger supported by a joist 
clamp or swivel joint, which will permit the 



14 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

hanger being shortened or lengthened after the 
pipe has been hung. 

Connection to Main Sewer. The method of 
making this connection is generally regulated by 
local conditions, and the rules and regulations 
established by ordinance of the town or city in 
which the work is to be done. The connection of 
the house sewer to the main or street sewer should, 
if possible, always be made with a Y, or if there 
is no Y connection on the main available, then the 
house sewer should be laid in such a manner that 
it will strike the main sewer at an angle to the 
direction of flow of sewage in the main sewer. 
This will greatly facilitate the flow of sewage from 
house sewer into main sewer. The house sewer 
pipe should have an upward incline of 14 i ncn P er 
foot as it extends from the street main toward the 
building, and it should terminate at a point not 
less than 5 feet from the outside of the foundation 
walls, where connection is to be made with the 
cast iron soil pipe extending into the building. 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 15 

Size of House Sewers. The size of the sewer 
leading from the building to the street main is 
governed by the quantity of sewage to be disposed 
of. In large installations it often becomes neces- 
sary to use more than one. Care should be taken, 
however, not to install too large a sewer, nor to 
give the same too much pitch or incline toward 
the street. There are two reasons for this: (1) 
If the sewer is too large it will not be flushed as 
it should be, since the water passing through it 
will reach only part way up its sides, thus allow- 
ing the floating matter to adhere to the sides, 
the result of which will sooner or later be an 
accumulation that will cause a stoppage of flow. 

(2) If the sewer has too much pitch the water 
will rush through it so rapidly that the solid mat- 
ter will be left behind and very likely be de- 
posited on the bottom and sides of the pipe, thus 
forming an obstruction to the discharge of matter 
which follows. 

The basic principle controlling the successful 
disposal of sewage through pipes is flotation; 
that is, the velocity of flow of the water should be 
such that the solid matter will be floated along 
with the water. It has been found by experiment, 
and also by practice, that an average velocity of 
276 feet per minute will carry all matter from the 
sewer. In estimating the required size of sewer 
from house to street main a good rule to follow 
is to have the sewer pipe one size larger than the 
soil pipe. 



16 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Table 1 will facilitate calculations for fall re- 
quired of various sized sewers in order to give the 
velocity of flow required to remove all matter from 
the pipes. 



Size of Sewer 


Fall, or 


Pitch Required 


Velocity of Flow 


2 inch 


1 foot 


in 20 feet 


276 feet per minute 


3 " 


1 " 




" 30 




276 " 


4 " 






" 40 


* 


276 " 


5 " 


1 " 




" 50 




276 " 


6 " 


1 " 




" 60 


' 


276 " 


7 " 


1 " 




" 70 


' 


276 ' 


8 " 


1 " 




" 80 




276 " 


9 " 


1 " 




"- 90 




276 


10 " 


1 




"100 " 


276 " 



FALL PER FOOT FOR VARIOUS SIZED SEWERS AND HORI- 
ZONTAL SOIL PIPES. 

Rain Leaders. All down spouts, or rain water 
pipes leading to, and connected with the house 
sewer should be equipped with traps at their base. 
The required size for house drains for carrying 
away rain water is given in Table 2, the values 
given therein being based upon an average rain- 
fall. 



Size of Pipe 



One-fourth Inch Fall 
Per Foot 



One-half Inch Fall 
Per Foot 



5 inch 

6 " 

7 " 



3,700 sq. ft. of roof area 

5,000 " " " " 

6,900 " " " " 

11,600 

11 600 " " ' 



5,500 sq. ft. of roof area 

7,500 ' 

10,000 ' " 

15,600 ' " 

17.400 " " " " 



TABLE 2. 
SIZES OF HOUSE DRAINS TO CARRY RAIN WATER. 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



17 



Capacity of Drain Pipe Under Different Amounts 

of Fall. 

Gallons per Minute. 


Size of Pipe. 


1-2 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


6 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


9 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 In. 

4 " 
6 " 
9 " 

12 " 
15 " 
18 " 
20 " 


21 

36 

84 

232 

470 

830 

1300 

1760 


30 

52 

120 

330 

680 

1180 

1850 

2450 


42 

76 

169 

470 

960 

1680 

2630 

3450 


52 

92 

206 

570 

1160 

2040 

3200 

4180 


Size of Pipe. 


12 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


18 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


24 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


36 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 In. 

4 " 
6." 
9 " 

12 " 
15 " 
18 " 
20 " 


60 

108 

240 

660 

1360 

2370 

3740 

4860 


' 74 

132 

294 

810 

1670 

2920 

4600 

5980 


85 

148 

338 

930 

1920 

3340 

5270 

6850 


104 
184 
414 
1140 
2350 
4100 
6470 
8410 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS. 

Floor drains, when used in cellar or basement* 
should be connected to the leader side of a rain, 
leader trap wherever it is possible. Some sanitary 
engineers go so far as to say that floor drains 
should never be used, their objection to them be- 
ing that the floor is not washed often enough to 
furnish sufficient water to maintain a water seal 
at all times against sewer gas ingress, and their 
argument is well taken, but floor drains in a base- 
ment are very convenient, and should be part of 
a well-installed sanitary sewer system. 

In case of a seepage of water through the foun- 
dation walls, during a rainy period, it is well to 
be provided with some means to carry the water 
away quickly, without having to resort to the 
laborious practice of pumping. 

The evils of a floor drain are not so much due 
to their inefficiency, as they are to the care taken 
of them. The cemented floor basement of the 
modern home today is just as important to be 
kept clean as the bathroom, and the thorough 
housekeeper takes just as much pride in it, and 
realizes the necessity for having it so from a sani- 
tary standpoint. 

The old method of installing a floor drain or 
18 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 



19 



floor outlet which consisted of placing a running 
trap in the line of drain pipe to the catch-basin, 
and running a piece of pipe to the floor level and 
simply closing the opening with a bar strainer 
grate is wrong. The grate, even when cemented 
into the hub end of the pipe, will in time become 
loosened, and dirt and other rubbish will soon 
clog up the trap and render it useless. 




Fig. 3. 



As before said, the great objection to a base- 
ment floor drain in the ordinary house, is that 
there is seldom sufficient water used on the base- 
ment floor, to maintain a perfect water seal in the 
trap. To neglect to see that the floor drain trap 
is not always filled with water and to argue 
against its installation on that point is wrong. 

Floor drains should never be used without a 
back-water valve, which will prevent f sc*w^r water 
from backing up into the basement, A number 



20 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 

of different styles of floor drains are shown, which 
are built on the proper lines. The one shown in 
Fig. 3 is a combination floor drain and back-water 
gate valve. This accessible cleanout cellar drain 
flushing cesspool and back-water gate trap valve 
combination has much to be commended. It has 
a hinged strainer, through which seeping and 
floor waste water finds a direct outlet to the trap 
and sewer. The trap has a deep water seal, which 
is always desirable, and is always provided with 
a brass back-water gate valve or flap-valve which 
will not rust and which will close and hold tight 
against a back flow from the sewer. It also has 
a tapped opening to which a water supply pipe 
can be attached, and by means of a valve being 
placed on the pipe at some convenient point, the 
drain trap can be thoroughly flushed and cleansed 
by simply opening the valve for a few minutes 
at a time. 

Another method oftentimes used to provide for 
a floor outlet to sewer is to run a piece of iron soil 
pipe from the trap on the sewer to the floor level, 
and to caulk into the hub of the pipe a brass fer- 
rule or thimble with a brass screwed cover, which 
is screwed down tight against a rubber gasket, as 
shown in Fig. 4. An outlet of this character is 
only opened when occasion demands, by unscrew- 
ing and removing the cover until its need is past. 

In Fig. 5 is shown an extra heavy cesspool 
suitable for barns, carriage room and places of 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 




Fig. 4 . 




Fig. 5 . 



22 CELLAR OE BASEMENT DRAINS 

like nature. The top is sixteen inches square, 
the body ten inches deep and has a four-inch out- 
let, suitable for caulking into the hub of a four- 
inch iron sewer pipe. The top cover or grating 
is heavy enough to permit of horses, wagons and 
carriages passing over it. The second grating or 
strainer is of finer mesh, which catches any ob- 
stacles which might clog up the sewer, it can be 
lifted out by the knob and easily cleaned at any 
time. The deep water seal in this trap is one of 
its good features, the bell or hood not only serves 
to maintain a water seal, but where used in stables 
is a shield over the outlet to prevent oats or grain 
of any description which might fall through the 
second strainer from getting into the sewer. 

Care should be taken to prevent the bottom of 
the cesspool from filling up with fine strainings. 

Fig. 6 is a combination floor strainer and back- 
water seal and is used in the hub of a sewer pipe 
which extends down to the trap placed in the 
sewer run. The rubber ball prevents the flooding 
of the basement from backing up of water, by be- 
ing floated to seat above. 

In Fig. 7 is shown a floor drain and trap, de- 
signed especially for hospital operating rooms 
and other places where it is desirable not only to 
cleanse thoroughly the floor, but also to remove 
all sediment from the trap itself for obvious sani- 
tary reasons. The trap is of cast iron, and is 
enamelled inside. This gives it an impervious 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 23 




Fig. 1. 



24 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 

and smooth surface and prevents the trap from 
becoming coated and slimy. This trap is provided 
with heavy brass cast flushing rim and has a brass 
removable strainer. 

In the sectional view is shown the method by 
which the water supply is connected to both the 
rim and trap, by means of which not only every 
portion of the body may be cleansed, but also all 
sediment removed from the jet inlet at the bottom. 

The trap is built especially to maintain a deep 
seal and is three inches in diameter. 



ROUGHING IN 25 

The roughing in of a system of plumbing re- 
quires the most careful measurements possible on 
the part of the plumber, owing to the fact that 
when this portion of the job is completed, the soil 
pipe is, or should be, in its proper location, the soil 
stack connected with it and extending through the 
roof of the building ; also all branch soil pipes 
leading from the main stack to their proper loca- 
tions, under, or near the various fixtures, so that 
when the floors are laid no changes will be re- 
quired, for be it remembered that all roughing in 
must be completed before the floors of the build- 
ing are put down. Fig. 8 shows a plan of the 
roughing in work to be done in the basement. 

The soil pipe is shown, with its various 
branches, each having a certain function to per- 
form, and it is easily seen that good judgment, 
and accurate measurements are necessary in order 
to bring each branch to its correct location. 

Fig. 9 is a vertical section of a two-story and 
basement building, showing all parts of the plumb- 
ing system, including the main soil stack con- 
nected at its bottom end with the house drain pipe, 
while its top extends through the roof. A careful 
study of Figs. 8 and 9 will show that good work 
is required on the part of the plumber to locate 
each tee, and Y in its proper place. • 



26 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



v£.f\©*v\ 







**v«^ 



Fig. 8 



ROUGHING IN 27 

In addition to the branch soil pipes which are 
to receive the discharge from the closets, there 
are vent pipes for the purpose of relieving the air 
pressure on the system, thus preventing siphon- 
age, and maintaining a circulation of air through- 
out the entire system at all times. These pipes 
are clearly shown in Fig. 9. Then there are the 
water pipes which are to supply water to the 
various fixtures ; and drain pipes for receiving the 
discharge from the different fixtures and passing 
the same on into the main soil stack. It is a good 
plan for the plumber to make a correct memoran- 
dum of all roughing in measurements, and pre- 
serve it for future reference. 

Cutting Soil Pipe. As before stated, the soil 
pipe should be extra heavy cast-iron pipe. When 
the proper measurements have been taken, and 
memoranda made of the same, it will be next in 
order to cut the soil pipe into lengths to corre- 
spond with the measurements. 

The best tools to use for this purpose are a 
diamond point cold chisel, and a machinist's ham- 
mer. Some workmen use a three wheel cutter for 
cutting this pipe, but there is always a liability of 
cracking the pipe with this tool, owing to the fact 
that the pipe is not of a uniform thickness. Hav- 
ing determined by measurement the point where 
the cut is to be made, mark it with a piece of chalk 
around the circumference of the pipe, then lay the 
pipe on the floor, placing a narrow piece of wood 
directly under the marked place, and proceed with 
the chisel and hammer. 



28 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




^\.e\ttov>"\ 



Fig. 9 



ROUGHING IN 29 

Making Soil Pipe Joints. Joints that will not 
leak should be the motto of every good plumber, 
and this should apply, not only to joints that are 
visible, but also to those joints in the soil pipe 
which are in many cases entirely hidden from 
view, owing to their location. Special care should 
be exercised in making the joint which unites the 
cast-iron soil pipe with the vitrified sewer pipe 
just outside the walls of the building. There are 
several patented devices that may be used for 
making this joint, or it may be made by the same 
method as are the joints in the main sewer, that 
is by the use of cement. 

The joints in the soil pipe proper, within the 
walls of the building should be made with oakum 
and melted lead, by first caulking the oakum 
tightly in the space provided for the joint, leaving 
a space of 1 inch to l 1 /^ inches in which to pour 
the lead, which should also be caulked after it has 
cooled. In caulking the lead due care should be 
exercised not to use a heavy hammer, since great 
pressure is brought to bear upon the hub, and 
there is danger of cracking it. In the making of 
a joint in a horizontal soil pipe greater skill is 
required than on a vertical pipe, and it becomes 
necessary to use an asbestos joint runner in pour- 
ing the lead. 



30 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Putty, or soft clay are sometimes used for hold- 
ing the lead, but not as good results are obtained 
as with the asbestos, which can be clamped around 
the pipe tightly, leaving an opening at the top for 
pouring in the lead. Always pour the joint full 
at one pouring. If by accident, or mistake the 
joint is not poured full, at the first pouring, it 
becomes necessary to pick out the lead, and repour 
it. The lead used in making these joints should 
be entirely free from solder, or other metals, and 
it should always be hot when poured. It is good 
practice to place some pulverized resin in the 
space before pouring the lead. This will prevent 
any trouble from possible dampness. Table 4 
gives the weight of lead and oakum required for 
soil pipe joints in various sized pipes. 



Size of Pipe 


Lead per Joint 


Oakum per Joint 


2 inch 

3 " 

4 " 

5 " 

6 " 


1 V2 pounds 

§* :: 

3% 

4% 


3 ounces 
6 

7 
8 
9 



TABLE 4. 
LEAD AND OAKUM REQUIRED FOR SOIL PIPE JOINTS. 



Fig. 10 shows the plumbing for a two tenement 
house, also method of using test plugs. 

Fig. 11 shows the plumbing for a three tenement 
building. 

Fig. 12 shows a method of running a long line of 
soil pipe on the cellar wall. 



ROUGHING IN 



31 





**%£' 






TtV\ TO *£ r 











Fi S . 10 



32 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Kvn ct *^o nv 



Fig. 11 



ROUGHING IN 



33 




Fig. 12 



34 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Roof Construction. Eeference to Figures 10 
and 11 will show that the diameters of the main 
soil stacks are increased just under the roof, by 
means of an increaser, and the enlarged diameter 
continues through the roof. This is for the pur- 
pose of preventing the stack from becoming 
clogged with hoar frost in cold weather. 

Figures 13 and 14 show several different meth- 
ods of roof connections ; called by plumbers, ' ' roof 
flashings. ' ' These are for the purpose of prevent- 
ing rain water from following down the outside of 
the pipe below the roof. Soil pipes should not be 
less than four inches in diameter, and both soil, 
and vent pipes should extend at least eight inches 
above the roof, and if, at this height the opening 
would be near the doors or windows of an adjoin- 
ing building, these pipes should be extended so as 
to bring the opening to a point not less than fif- 
teen feet from such doors or windows ; and these 
openings should be not less than six feet from any 
ventilator, or chimney opening of the building 
they are installed in, or any adjoining building. 
Otherwise they are liable to be declared a nui- 
sance. The increasers for enlarged diameter of 
these pipes should extend at least one foot below 
the roof, and the openings of these pipes must 
have no caps or cowles affixed to, or over their 
tops. 

In many cities the connection of soil, or vent 
pipes with a chimney flue is prohibited. 



ROUGHING IN 



35 




two VteTWrt>*> Of 



36 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 







Two V\^v\QftS> of 

HOOT 
cov\trecT\OY\ 



ROUGHING IN 3? 

Pipe Supports. The foot of every vertical 
soil, rain, or waste pipe should be permanently 
supported by a solid brick, stone or concrete pier 
properly constructed, by using cement mortar, or 
cement concrete, or if such material is not avail- 
able, some other foundation equally as solid 
should be used. The weight of the vertical soil 
stack in most buildings is usually very heavy, and 
when not properly supported, there is danger of 
the pipe settling, the consequence of which would 
be the opening up of more or less of the joints, 
thereby causing leakage. In addition to supports 
at the bottom, these pipes should also be provided 
with floor rests at intervals of every second floor 
through which they pass. Soil pipes under the 
floor of the basement should be properly laid, rela- 
tive to grade, and should also be provided with 
adequate supports that will not settle. In case 
these pipes are above the basement floor they 
should be supported on solid piers, or they may 
be suspended from above as shown in Fig. 12. 
Where horizontal pipes are to be supported by 
suspension, strap iron stirrups, and not hooks are 
to be used. 

Fresh Air Inlets. Fig. 15 shows two methods 
for admitting fresh air to the basement soil pipe. 
Fig. 16 shows the roughing in plan for the base- 
ment of a store or office building; while Figures 
17, 18 and 19 show the roughing in and plumbing 
of a Modern Engine House for the use of the Fire 
Department. 



38 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 15 



ROUGHING IN 



39 




*t^»\«N>-\^ 






KVA* CftT\CEt> 



Fig. 16 



40 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fisr. 17 



ROUGHING IN 



41 






Mi\\_\- 



/5W l 







^v^«^no^"x 



Fig-. 18 



42 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 19 



ROUGHING IN 43 

Figure 20 shows the plumbing for a modern 
stable, and is self-explanatory. Figures 21 to 28 
Bhow enlarged views of the connections to the 
various fixtures required in the plumbing of a 
two-story and basement residence as shown in 
Fig. 9. These illustrations are self-explanatory, 
and need no further comment. It will be noticed 
that the work starts in the basement on the con- 
nections for the wash trays, and servant's water- 
closet, Fig. 21. Next come the fixtures on the first 
floor, consisting of the refrigerator, kitchen sink, 
and lavatory. These are shown in Figs. 22, 23, 
and 24. The waste, or drip pipe from the ref rig- 
erator, Fig. 24, should not be directly connected 
with any soil pipe, rain water lead, or any other 
waste pipe; but should discharge into an open, 
water supplied sink, or over a deep sealed trap, 
as shown in Fig. 24. It should be as short as 
possible, and should be disconnected from the re- 
frigerator, or ice box by at least four inches. In 
buildings where refrigerators, or ice boxes are 
located on two or more floors, the waste and vent 
pipe should be continuous, and should run through 
the roof, care being taken also, that it does not 
open within six feet of an open soil, or vent pipe. 
The size of a waste pipe for refrigerators for two 
floors, or less should be at least one and one-half 
inches; two inches for three floors and over, and 
two and one-half inches for five floors and over. 



44 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 20 



FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 



45 




CCmv\^CT\Ov\S 



Fig. 21 



46 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 







Fig. 22 



FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 



47 












\ 
OV G KV.V 




&*■ LKMKTQRY 









Fig. 23 



48 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



C cmKHC^\QW5 


















!) 






~h 




o 




o 






[ 


1 > 






i 













VP^ 



? Vsvt-^LJ 




C.O\t^ 'ON witt \\t?^\&- 
COvEK 









FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 



M 




Fig. 25 



50 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



fO 



cor\nt:cTvor\S ^kq ) 






** ***** 














:\ 



fc*»M> SX&frW V^gv*** tv, &o<C 



^ 







Fig. 26 



FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 



51 




Fig. 27 



52 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




_5LQP 5\r\W 



Fig. 28 



TRAPS. 

A. trap is a device or fitting used to allow the 
free passage through it of liquids and solids, and 
still prevent the passage of air or gas in either 
direction. There are two kinds of traps used on 
plumbing fixtures known as syphon traps and 
anti-syphon traps. The simplest trap is the sy- 
phon trap — a horizontal pipe bent as shown in 




Fig. 29. 

Fig. 29. This forms a pocket which will retain 
enough liquid to prevent air or gas from passing. 
The dip or loop is called the seal, and should 
never be less than one and one-half inches. This 
type of trap is what is known as* a running-trap. 
This is not a good trap to use, and it is only capa- 
ble of withstanding a very low back pressure, 
53 



54 



TRAPS 



The trap most generally used is what is known 
as the S trap, as shown in Fig 30. When this trap 
is subjected to a back-pressure, the water backs 
up into the vertical pipe, and naturally will with- 
stand a greater pressure than the running-trap 
type— about twice as much. 




The trap shown in Fig 31 is what is known as 
a P trap, and in Fig 32 as three-quarter S trap, 
and has the same resisting power as the S trap. 

A trap may lose its seal either by evaporation, 
self-syphonage or by suction. There is no danger 



TEAPS 



55 



of a trap losing its seal in an occupied house 
from evaporation, as it would take a number of 
week's time, under ordinary conditions, to evapo- 
rate enough water to destroy the seal. 




Fig. 32 . 



56 



TRAPS 



A trap can be syphoned when connected to an 
unvented stack, and then only when' the waste 
pipe from the trap to the stack extends below the 
dip, so as to form the long leg of the syphon as 
in Fig. 33. 




Fig. 33. 



TRAPS 57 

When two fixtures are installed one above the 
other, with unvented traps and empty into one 
stack, the lower trap can be syphoned by aspira- 
tion. The water emptying into the stack at the 
higher point in passing to the trap inlet of the 
lower fixture, creates a partial vacuum which 
sucks the water out of the trap at the lower point. 
To prevent this, what is known as back-venting 
is resorted to, back-venting not only protects the 
trap against syphonage, but relieves the seal from 
back-pressure, by equalizing the pressure on both 
sides of the seal. All revent pipes must be con- 
nected to vent pipes at such a point that the vent 
opening will be above the level of the water in 
the trap. 

In Fig. 34 two basins are shown connected to 
soil pipe with S traps and back— vented into the 
air-vent pipe, both connecting into the attic into 
an increaser, which projects through the roof. 
This drawing is given to illustrate the proper 
back-venting to prevent syphonage of basin traps, 
and when it is necessary to run separate stacks 
for wash basins, such as are sometimes installed 
in bedrooms, the main waste stack must be two 
inches in diameter and the vent pipe one and one- 
half inches, either cast iron or galvanized wrought 
iron. 

Non-syphon traps are those in which the seal 
cannot be broken under any reasonable condi- 
tions. Some water can be syphoned from the best 



58 



TRAPS 



of non-syphon traps made, but not enough to de- 
stroy their seal. The commonest non-syphoning 




Fig. 34 



TEAPS 59 

trap is known as a dram trap, which is four inches 
in diameter and ten inches deep. Sufficient water 
always remains in this trap to maintain its seal, 
even when subjected to the severest of tests. 

Fig. 35 shows a trap, which is the type general- 
ly used to trap the bathtub. This trap is provided 



Fig. 35 

with a brass trap-screw top for clean-out pur- 
poses, made gas and water tight against a rubber 
gasket. A trap of this kind would not be suitable 
for a lavatory, its principal fault being that owing 
to the enlarged body they are not self-cleaning, 
affording a lodging place for the depositing of 
sediment. 



60 



TRAPS 



The non-syphon trap to be used is one in which 
the action of the water is rotary, as it thoroughly 
scours the trap and keeps it clean, such as is 
shown in Fig. 36. This trap depends upon an 
inner partition to effect this rotary movement, 
and is so constructed that its seal cannot be brok- 
en by syphonic action and is permitted by health 





Fig. 36 



Fig. 37 



and sanitary departments, where it is impossible 
to run a separate vent pipe to the roof. 

One of the oldest traps is the Cudell trap, as 
shown in Fig. 38. The rubber ball being of slight- 
ly greater specific gravity than water rests on the 
seat and forms a seal when the water is not flow- 
ing through the trap. This ball prevents the seal 



TRAPS 61 

of the trap being forced by back-pressure, and 
acts as a check against back flow of sewerage 
should drain stop up, and provides a seal if water 
is evaporated. 

Fig. 37 shows the old Bower trap. The water 
seal is maintained by the inlet leg, extending 




Pig. 38 



down into the body below the outlet. The bot- 
tom of this trap is glass, brass or lead, which- 
ever is desired, and can be unscrewed from trap 
and thoroughly cleaned. 



SOLDER. 

The composition and properties of solders are 
a matter of considerable interest to all metal 
workers, but the subject is of especial import- 
ance to plumbers, because on the quality and 
purity of solder depend in a large measure the 
reliability and good appearance of their work. 
Nothing is more annoying, nor is there anything 
so productive of bad work, waste of time, and 
consequent irritability and bad temper, as the 
trying to do good work with bad material, par- 
ticularly if that material is wiping or plumbers' 
solder. Until recent years it was invariably the 
practice for plumbers to make their own solders, 
either from the pure lead and tin, or, old joints 
and solders were melted down, and tin added in 
proportion. Of late years it is becoming quite 
unusual for plumbers to know anything about 
solder-making. Plumbers consider it more eco- 
nomical to buy it, already made, from firms who 
make solder-making a branch of their manu- 
facturing trade. Another advantage is, that if 
supplied by a firm of good standing it can gen- 
erally be depended upon for purity and uniform 
quality. 

Good plumbers' solder should consist of two 
62 



SOLDER 63 

pans of lead to one of tin, but the proportions, 
of course, vary according to the quality of the 
constituent parts. Tin, for instance, varies very 
much in quality, and no fluxing or a super- 
abundance of the tin will make good solder if 
this metal is of an inferior kind. It is, there- 
fore, far the most economical in the long run to 
use tin of the very best quality. 

As the exact proportions, as they are gener- 
ally given, depend to a very great extent upon 
the condition of the two metals, it follows that 
the mere mixing of certain quantities of tin and 
lead does not necessarily make a composition 
that will serve the purpose that it is intended 
for, but a plumber with an experienced eye can 
detect at a glance the inferiority and usefulness 
of such solders when required for the execution 
of good work. 

Although it is not absolutely necessary that a 
good solder-maker should be a plumber, it is 
important that he should have a considerable 
knowledge of the appearance of solder in proper 
condition. In the absence of a practical test, 
there are certain indications by which the solder 
may be judged, whether it is good or bad. The 
most common practice is to run out a strip of 
solder on a smooth level stone. As soon as the 
strip is nearly cold, the quality of the solder or 
the proper proportion of tin and lead can be de- 
termined by the appearance of bot> surfaces. It 



64 SOLDER 

is important, before running the solder out on 
the stone, that it should be at such a, heat as 
to allow the solder to run freely. A tempera- 
ture just below red heat is the most suitable for 
this purpose, if the solder is not hot enough, it 
will have a dull white look, whether it is good 
or bad. 

If it is in good condition, it should have a 
clean, silvery appearance, bright spots should 
also form on the surface from an eighth to a 
quarter of an inch in diameter. As a rule, the 
larger the spots the finer is the solder, although 
some kinds of tin will not show large spots, 
however much is used. In such cases they 
should appear more numerous. 

If the strip has a dull, dirty appearance and 
a mottled surface, it is evident the solder is not 
as pure as it should be. It probably contains 
some mineral impurities, which can generally be 
removed by well heating the solder in the pot, 
and stirring into it a quantity of resin and 
tallow. These substances have but very little, 
if any, chemical effects, either upon the solder 
or the foreign matters it may contain, but the 
action that seems to take place is that they 
combine with the lighter mineral matters by 
what may be called adhesive attraction, and 
cause them to rise to the surface, where they can 
be skimmed off. There are some earthy impurities 
that get into the solder, the specific gravities of 



SOLDER 65 

which are probably much lighter than the solder 
itself, but which will not rise to the surface un- 
til assisted by means of fluxes. It must be re- 
membered that although tin has a specific gravity 
of 7.3 and lead 11.445, it is therefore, necessary 
to well stir the solder while it is being poured 
into the moulds, as the tin will continually rise 
to the top, yet if it were not stirred at all after 
it was once mixed, the lower portion would not 
be wholly deprived of tin, showing that the 
greater specific gravity of the one does not 
wholly displace the other. The same is true of 
certain impurities, which are not removed until 
they are washed out, as it were, by means of 
fluxes such as resin and tallow. 

The greatest enemy to plumbers' solder is 
zinc. If the slightest trace of this metal gets 
into a pot of solder, it is almost a matter of 
impossibility to wipe joints with it, especially 
underhand joints. 

When zinc is present, the strip of solder has a 
dull, crystallized appearance on the surface. The 
tin spots are also very dull and rough, and not 
at all bright and clean. When solder of this 
kind is being used for wiping, the first thing 
noticed is that a thick, dirty dross forms on the 
surface directly after it is skimmed. It is im- 
possible to keep the surface clean for even a 
second. When it is poured on a joint, it sets 
almost instantly, and it matters not at what heat 



66 SOLDER 

it is used. As soon as one attempts to move it 
with the cloth, it breaks to pieces, and falls off 
the joint. 

In the case of branch joints when an iron is 
used, the solder cools in hard lumps, and breaks 
away like portions of wet sand. There are two 
or three ways of extracting zinc from solder, 
one is to partly fuse it, and when it is nearly 
set to pulverize it until the particles are sep- 
arated as much as possible. The whole is then 
placed in a pot or earthenware vessel and sat- 
urated with hydrochloric acid, commonly called 
muriatic acid. The acid dissolves the zinc and 
produces chloride of zinc; the latter can be 
washed out with clean water and the solder re- 
turned to the pot in a comparatively pure state. 
This method cannot be recommended as a cer- 
tain cure, because of the difficulty there exists 
in dividing the particles to such an extent as to 
expose the whole of the zinc that may be con- 
tained in it, and considering the small amount 
of zinc that is sufficient to poison a pot of solder 
it is doubtful if the acid process is radical 
enough in its action to thoroughly eradicate the 
zinc without repeated applications. 

Sulphur is the best thing to use for this pur- 
pose. 

When a pot of solder has been found to be 
poisoned with zinc, it is heated to just below a 
red heat. Lump sulphur is broken up and gran- 



SOLDER 67 

ulated, it is then screwed up tight in three or 
four thicknesses of paper, and u this form is 
thrown into the pot and held below the solder 
with a ladle. As the paper burns the sulphur 
rises through the solder, combines with the zinc, 
and floats on the surface. The solder is well 
stirred so as to thoroughly mix the sulphur with 
the whole of the contents of the pot, the dross 
which is formed by this process is then skimmed 
oif with a ladle and thrown away as useless. 

In the case of the sulphur, although it is gen- 
erally called a flux, the action that takes place 
is altogether different to that of resin and tal- 
low. It may safely be inferred by reference to 
the results of chemical combinations that the 
zinc, having a great affinity for sulphur, as soon 
as it comes in contact, forms sulphide of zinc, 
this is really a substance similar to zinc blende, 
a common form of zinc ore. In this condition, 
the specific gravity being considerably reduced, 
it readily rises to the surface of the solder, 
where it can be skimmed off with a ladle. 

The question naturally arises— why is it the 
sulphur does not combine with the lead to which 
it also has an affinity, and thus form sulphide of 
lead? If lead is heated only just above its melt- 
ing point and then some sulphur is mixed with 
it, a substance would be formed similar to ga- 
lena, or sulphide of lead. But if the tempera- 
ture is raised several degrees higher the sulphide 



68 SOLDER 

gives up the lead, and either floats to the top 
or passes off in the form of gaseous vapor, chem- 
ically termed sulphurous anhydride. There- 
fore, by heating the solder containing zinc to a 
temperature just below redness, it is hot enough 
to prevent the sulphur combining with the lead 
and tin, but not sufficiently heated to cause the 
sulphur to give up the zinc, which fuses at a 
temperature of 773 degrees Fahrenheit, whereas 
lead fuses at 612 degrees Fahrenheit, and in com- 
bination with tin as solder at 441 degrees Fah- 
renheit. The difference in the melting points 
is in all probability the principal cause of the 
sulphur attracting the zinc and leaving the lead 
and tin comparatively unaffected. 

Another method of extracting the zinc from 
solder is to raise the temperature to a very 
bright red heat, if this is continued long enough 
the zinc vaporizes and passes off in a gaseous 
state. 

The latter is a very wasteful process because 
it cannot be done without a large proportion of 
the tin becoming oxidized. The oxide gathers 
in the form of a powder on the surface, and is 
what is commonly known as putty powder. One 
of the most common means of spoiling solder is 
the last mentioned. 

The flowing of solder, especially that used 
with the copper-bit, depends to a. large extent 
upon the fluxes that are used for tinning pur- 



SOLDER 69 

poses. For soldering lead only a very simple 
flux is necessary, namely, a little tallow and 
powdered resin. The same kind of flux is also 
very often nsed for tinning and soldering brass 
and copper, and there are many plumbers who 
use nothing else but a piece of common tallow 
candle, which seems to answer the purpose very 
well. For soldering iron, zinc, and tin goods, chlor- 
ide of zinc, or what is commonly called killed 
spirit of salt, is generally used, although it is 
not necessary to kill the hydrochloric acid when 
zinc has to be soldered. Soldering fluids and 
preparations have been invented which have, to 
a very large extent, superseded the common 
fluxes. The disadvantage of spirit of salt is ow- 
ing to the tendency it has to produce oxidation 
on iron, and chlorides on zinc, after the solder- 
ing is done. 

It would be interesting to try and find out the 
reason why a combination of metals fuses at 
such a low temperature when compared with the 
fusing points of the component parts of the 
alloys. It is necessary to bear in mind the fact 
that all metals, and indeed all matter, are com- 
posed of minute particles or molecules, and that 
there is nothing existing that is a strictly solid 
uniform mass. It is also acknowledged that 
the molecules of different substances always as- 
sume a distinctive shape, and when metallic 
matter is crystallized, as it is said to be when it 



70 SOLDER 

becomes solid by the action of cold, these par- 
ticles are attracted to each other by a force of 
more or less power according to the nature of 
the metal, whether it is said to be hard or soft. 

Now the force by which these aggregations of 
minute particles are held together is what is 
called cohesive attraction, and the power of this 
force to hold the particles together depends to 
a very great extent upon the particular shape 
which these extremely small particles assume, 
and the amount of surface which they present 
to each other. It is very easy to conceive that 
if a number of bodies have mutual attraction 
for each other, the larger the surface that comes 
in contact the more force is there exerted one 
with the other. If, for instance, the particles 
take the form of spheres like a number of mar- 
bles, the surface in actual contact is compara- 
tively very small indeed, the same would be the 
case if they were very irregular in form. But 
if each particle took the form of a cube, or 
some other regular body, the attraction would 
be greatly increased, as each of the particles 
approached and fitted into its proper place. It 
is not contended that the molecules are actually 
attracted into absolutely close contact, because, 
as a matter of fact, they are not. In every sub- 
stance, however hard and solid it might appear 
to be, there are certain interstices between the 
particles which are called pores, the capacities 



SOLDER 71 

of which vary according to peculiar conforma- 
tion of the particles, and the degree of affinity 
which one set of particles may have for others 
in the same mass. It follows then that as a rule 
the hardness or softness of any substance de- 
pends, according to the theory of cohesive at- 
traction, upon the close and compact nature of 
the molecules, and the large or small spaces or 
Interstices between them, that is, so far as the 
action of heat is concerned. If it is required to 
make a hard substance soft and pliable, some 
power is necessary to exert a reactionary in- 
fluence upon the attractive force which causes 
the particles to cohere. Now the only power 
that will effectually produce this result is heat. 
When heat is applied to most metallic sub- 
stances, the first thing it does is to enlarge the 
bulk by the almost irresistible force of expan- 
sion. The effect that heat has on a solid is 
to cause the particles to be thrown farther apart 
from each other by a repulsive force, overcoming 
to a certain extent the force of cohesive attrac- 
tion. This repulsive action continues to increase 
as the temperature is raised, until the attractive 
force has to give way to the force of gravity. 

The result is the particles will no longer co- 
here in a mass, but fall away from each other 
and become in a state of fluid, and if they are 
not kept together in a vessel of some kind d»?~- 
ing their high temperature they will run in any 



72 SOLDER 

direction by the influence of gravity like ordi- 
nary liquids. When a metal is in such a con- 
dition it is said to be melted or fused. There 
are some metals, zinc for instance, the particles 
of which are separated to a much greater ex- 
tent than is the case with fusion only. For if 
the heat is applied so that the temperature is 
raised above fusing point, evaporation takes 
place, and the molecules are driven off in the 
form of vapor. 

When two distinct metals are mixed together, 
such as tin and lead, the cohesive attraction is 
modified to a large extent, because the molecules 
of one have a comparatively small affinity for 
the other. Of course tin has a certain amount of 
affinity for lead, in fact, if there were no affinity 
between the two, solders would be useless on 
lead, because tinning could not be effected if 
such were the case. But what seems certain is, 
when the two metals are alloyed, the molecules 
are not held together by the same attractive force 
that is exerted when a metal is not alloyed, that 
is, the particles of one metal do not, by reason of 
their difference of construction or conformation, 
have the same affinity for each other as they do 
when they are not intermixed with other parti- 
cles of a different nature. 

Consequently, when such combinations of met- 
als are subjected to the action of heat, the par- 
ticles mutually assist each other to separate, and 



SOLDER 73 

gravitate like liquids to a level surface, with a 
much lower degree of temperature than is re- 
quired to obtain the same effect when the metals 
are melted separately. 

Then with regard to wiping solder, it retains 
its fluid and plastic state for a. much longer 
time than lead or tin would before they are mix- 
ed, showing that the particles, probably for the 
same reason, do not solidify so quickly as they 
would in a separate state. If they did, joint- 
wiping would, of course, be impossible, for on 
the peculiar power that solder has to retain its 
heat, or rather the effects of heat, depends the 
success of the most important parts of plumbing- 
work. An alloy of lead and tin contracts consid- 
erably in cooling, the result of this can be seen 
when a solder pot is placed on the fire. Before 
the bulk of the solder melts, but as soon as that 
part which is near the hottest part of the fire 
begins to fuse^ the molten metal forces its way 
up to the top, between the sides of the mass of 
solder and the sides of the pot, this often con- 
tinues until the top of the unmelted mass is 
covered with a melted layer which has forced its 
way there, showing that when the solder cooled 
it contracted into a smaller space than it occu- 
pied when it was in a fluid state. Consequently, 
when the lower part of the solder is melted first, 
the expansion that takes place forces it of neces- 
sity to the top, because there is not room for the 



74 SOLDER 

increased bulk in the space it was reduced to 
during the process of cooling. But if antimony, 
the fusing point of which is 840 degrees Fahren- 
heit, is added to lead and tin, the result is just 
the reverse, for on cooling this alloy expands. 
The latter alloy is generally used for casting 
types for printing, the proportions of which are 
two of lead, one of antimony, and one of tin, 
although a more expansive alloy is made of 
nine of lead, two of antimony, and one of bis- 
muth. Then with regard to the hardness of 
metals, it is not always that the hardest metals 
require the highest temperature to fuse them. 
Tin, for instance, is much harder than lead, yet 
it fuses at a temperature nearly 200 degrees Fah- 
renheit lower than lead. 



SOLDER 



75 





Decimal Parts of an 


Inch. 




1-64 


.01563 


11-32 


.34375 


43-64 


.67188 


1-32 


,03125 


23-64 


.35938 


11-16 


.6875 


3-64 


.04688 


3-8 


.375 






1-16 


.0625 






45-64 


.70313 






25-64 


.39063 


23-32 


.71875 


5-64 


.07813 


13-32 


.40625 


47-64 


.73438 


3-32 


.09375 


27-64 


.42188 


3-4 


.75 


7-64 


.10938 


7-16 


.4375 






1-8 


.125 






49-64 


.76563 






29-64 


.45313 


25-32 


.78125 


9-64 


,14063 


15-32 


.46875 


51-64 


.79688 


5-32 


.15625 


31-64 


.48438 


13-16 


.8125 


11-64 


.17188 


1-2 


.5 






3-16 


.1875 






53-64 


.82813 






33-64 


.51563 


27-32 


.84375 


13-64 


.20313 


17-32 


.53125 


55-64 


.85938 


7-32 


.21875 


35-64 


.54688 


7-8 


.875 


15-64 


.23438 


9-16 


.5625 






1-4 


.25 






57-64 


.89063 






37-64 


.57813 


29-32 


.90625 


17-64 


.26563 


19-32 


.59375 


59-64 


.92188 


9-32 


.28125 


39-64 


.60938 


15-16 


.9375 


19-64 


.29688 


5-8 


.625 






5-16 


.3125 






61-64 


.95313 






41-64 


.64063 


31-32 


.96875 


21-64 


.32813 


21-32 


.65625 


63-64 


.97438 



Melting Points of Alloys 


of Tin 


, Lead, and Bismuth. 


Tin. 


Lead. Bismuth. 

! 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit, 


2 


3 


5 


199 


4 


1 




372 


1 


1 


4 


201 


5 


1 




381 


3 


2 


5 


212 


2 


1 




385 


4 


1 


5 


246 


3 




1 


392 


1 




1 


286 


1 


1 




466 


2 




1 


334 


1 


3 




552 


3 


1 




367 











76 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Weight of Twelve Inches Square of Various Metals. 


a 
1 


§2 


a 

o 

03 
O 


02 


eg 


03 


a 
ft 
o 
o 


c 

EH 




•a 

03 
Hi 


1 

T~5" 


2.50 


2.34 


2.56 


2.75 


2.69 


2.87 


2.37 


2.25 


3.68 


% 


5.00 


4.69 


5.12 


5.50 


5.38 


5.75 


4.75 


4.50 


7.37 


3 
T"5" 


7.50 


7.03 


7.68 


8.25 


8.07 


8.62 


7.12 


6.75 


11.05 


X A 


10.00 


9.38 


10.25 


11.00 


10.75 


11.50 


9.50 


9.00 


14.75 


5 


12.50 


11.72 


12.81 


13.75 


13.45 


14.37 


11.87 


11.25 


18.42 


/8 


15.00 


14.06 


15.36 


16.50 


16.14 


17.24 


14.24 


13.50 


22.10 


7 
T6 


17.50 


16,41 


17.93 


19.25 


18.82 


20.12 


16.17 


15.75 


25.80 


% 


20.90 


18.75 


20.50 


22.00 


21.50 


23.00 


19.00 


18.00 


29.50 


TIT 


22.50 


21.10 


23.06 


24.75 


24.20 


25.87 


21.37 


20.25 


33.17 


% 


25.00 


23.44 


25.62 


27.50 


26.90 


28.74 


23.74 


22.50 


36.84 


1 1 

T"6 


27.50 


25.79 


28.18 


30.25 


29.58 


31.62 


26.12 


24.75 


40.54 


3/ 

/A 


30.00 


28.12 


30.72 


33.00 


32.28 


34.48 


28.48 


27.00 


44.20 


1 3 


32.50 


30.48 


33.28 


35.75 


34.95 


37.37 


30.87 


29.25 


47.92 


% 


35.00 


32.82 


35.86 


38.50 


37.64 


40.24 


32.34 


31.50 


51.60 


1 5 


37.50 


35.16 


38.43 


41.25 


40.32 


43.12 


35.61 


33.75 


55.36 


1 


40.00 


37.50 


41.00 


44.00 


43.00 


46.00 


38.00 


36.00 


59.00 



Weight of Metals. To Find Weight in Pounds. 



Aluminium 

Brass 

Copper 

Cast-iron 

Wrought-Iron 

Lead 

Mercury 

Nickel 

Tin 

Zinc 



..cubic inches 



X 0.094 

X0.31 

X 0.32 

X0.26 

X0.28 

X0.41 

X 0.49 

X 0.31 

X0.26 

X0.26 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER. 

Plumber's wiping solder, for use with the 
ladle and the soldering cloth, is made up by 
melting together pure lead and block tin in the 
proportion of 2 pounds of lead to 1 pound of 
tin. Plumber's fine solder is made of about equal 
parts of those two metals. Strip solder— used 
with the copper-bit— is made in the proportion 
of 2 pounds of tin to 3 pounds of lead. Gas- 
fitter's solder may be made in the proportion of 
8 pounds of tin to 9 pounds of lead, tinsmith's 
copper-bit solder is 1 pound of lead to 1 pound 
of tin. The proportion of lead and tin may vary 
within certain limits without apparent effect on 
the solder. 

Plumber's wiping solder, when in a bar, 
should have a clean grey appearance, and not be 
dirty-looking. The ends of the bar should be 
bright, and show several tin spots mottled over 
their surfaces. In use, the solder should work 
smooth, and not granular. The tin should not 
separate from the lead on the lower part of the 
joints. One test for the quality of solder is to 
melt it and then pour on to a cold but dry stone 
about the size of a dollar, and take note of the 
color and size and also the number and sizes 
77 



78 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 

of the spots that appear, but the only reliable 
test is to make a joint and note the ease with 
which it can be worked. For making joints on 
lead pipes copper-bit solder made in thin strips 
is generally used. This is the kind used also 
for soldering zinc. Some plumbers prefer sol- 
der finer, others coarser than the usual average 
which is given above. 

The usual method of making solder is as fol- 
lows: An iron pot is suspended over a coke fire, 
to which enough broken coke is added to bank 
up all round the pot. Sheet-lead cuttings and 
scraps of clean pipe are put into the pot until it 
is rather more than half full. Preference is 
given to pig-lead over sheet, and to new cuttings 
over pipe, because the lead rolled into sheets is 
generally purer than that used for pipe. Some 
pipe is made of old metals which contain lead, 
tin, antimony, arsenic, and zinc, it is inadvis- 
able to put such material in the solder-pot. The 
effect would be to raise the melting point of 
the solder, and in applying it to the joint to be 
soldered it would in all probability partially 
melt the lead. Moreover, the metals named do 
not alloy perfectly, but partake more of the 
nature of a. mixture which partially separates 
when making a joint, some metals, especially 
zinc, show as small bright lumps on the surface. 
Joints made with such solder, which usually is 
called poisoned metal, are difficult to form, and 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 79 

they usually leak when in water pipes. The ap- 
pearance of such joints is a dirty grey, instead 
of bright and clean as when pure solder is used. 
From this it is clear that in making solder great 
care must be taken to exclude zinc from the pot. 
Zinc, lead, and tin do not alloy well, lead will 
unite with only 1.6 per cent of zinc, and above 
that proportion the metals are only mixed when 
melted, and on cooling partially separate. 

Sufficient lead having been melted in the pot, 
about % pound of lump sulphur, broken into 
pieces about the size of hickory nuts, is added, 
and the whole well stirred with a ladle, the sul- 
phur unites with zinc and other impurities. The 
resultant sulphides are skimmed off in the form 
of a cake, more sulphur being added so long az 
sulphides continue to form. The ' bowl of the 
ladle, in the intervals of stirring, should be laid 
on the fire, to burn off any adherent sulphur. 
When sulphide ceases to be formed, a handful 
of resin is thrown into the pot, and the lead 
stirred. When the resin has burned, the lead is 
again skimmed, and a piece of tallow about the 
size of a hen's egg is put into the pot, the lead 
being again stirred and skimmed. In stirring 
the lead it is lifted up and poured back by the 
ladleful, a larger amount of lead being thus 
exposed to the action of the cleaning material. 

Best block tin is now added in the required 
proportion, and after the molten mass has been 



80 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 

well stirred a little of the mixture should be run 
on to a stone to test its fineness. If it appears 
too coarse more tin is added, if too fine, more 
sheet-lead. Finally, a little resin and tallow 
having been added, the solder is skimmed and is 
then ready for use or for pouring into moulds. 
When plumber's solder is heated in an open 
pot, the surface exposed to the air combines with 
oxygen, and on heating to redness, the combina- 
tion takes place more readily. The tin melts 
at a lower temperature than lead, and as its 
specific gravity is lighter, floats when melted, 
and so the solder becomes poorer when too 
highly heated, owing to the tin's oxidation. If 
the dross is melted with a flux, or with pow- 
dered charcoal, which will combine with the 
oxygen, the solder will again become fit for use, 
but it is sometimes necessary to add a little 
more tin. 

Burning the solder must be carefully avoided. 
A pot of solder after it has been red-hot has 
always a quantity of dross or dirt collected on 
the top. This is principally oxide of tin and 
oxide of lead, the tin and lead having united 
with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form ox- 
ides of these metals. Lead being roughly 50 
per cent heavier than tin, the tendency is for 
the tin in the molten mixture to form the upper 
layer of the solder— the part most exposed to 
the action of the atmosphere. When the solder 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 81 

becomes red-hot, there is therefore more tin 
burned than lead. Hence the solder becomes too 
coarse, and more tin must be added. Zinc is 
the greatest trouble to the solder pot. Great 
care has to be taken to exclude it, or to get it 
out. It may get into the solder from a piece of 
zinc, having been put into the pot by mistake 
for lead, but more commonly brass, which is an 
alloy of copper and zinc, is the source of the 
zinc that poisons the pot, into which brass filings 
find their way while brass is being prepared 
for tinning. If the filing is done at the same 
bench as the wiping, splashes of metal may fall 
on the filings, which will adhere, and thus get 
into the pot. Solder that is poisoned by arsenic 
or antimony is beyond the plumber's skill to 
clean, but zinc can be extracted by stirring in 
powdered sulphur when the solder is in a semi- 
molten condition, and then melting the whole, 
when the combined sulphur and zinc will rise 
to the surface, and can be taken ofr* in the form 
of a cake, the solder being left in good condition 
for use. 



SOLDERING FLUXES. 

The flux ordinarily used for plumber's wiping 
solder is tallow, generally in the form of a 
candle. No other fluxes answer this purpose so 
well, as they all spoil the wiping cloths, but dif- 
ferent kinds of fluxes are required for different 
kinds of work. For a wiped joint, a tallow 
candle is rubbed over the parts. This is often 
used in making copper-bit joints, though for this 
latter purpose many plumbers prefer to use 
black rosin. Muriatic acid is employed as a flux 
for use when soldering, the acid — which is a 
powerful poison— being used for zinc or galvan- 
ized iron, and the killed acid for other metals, 
such as brass, tinplate, copper, wrought-iron, 
etc. 

After tinning brass with fine solder, the cop- 
per-bit should be wiped quite clean, as the cop- 
per, uniting with some of the zinc in the brass, 
may affect the wiping solder. Some plumbers 
tin brass by holding it over the metal pot and 
pouring the solder on to it. This is bad prac- 
tice, as the surplus solder, and any zinc with 
which it may have combined, fall into the pot. 
In cleaning solder, the sulphur must be used 
82 



SOLDERING FLUXES 83 

with more care than when cleaning lead, or the 
tin will be burnt out as well as the zinc. 

The method ordinarily adopted by plumbers 
for tinning iron is to file it bright and then coat 
the part with killed acid or chloride of zinc, or 
muriatic acid in which zinc has been dissolved, 
and then dip it into molten plumber's solder. 
Sometimes sal-ammoniac is used for the flux, or 
a mixture of sal-ammoniac and chloride of zinc. 
When wrought-iron pipes have been thus tinned, 
and then soldered joints made, they have been 
found to come apart after a few years, the pipe 
ends, when pulled from the solder, being found 
to be rusty. Although more difficult to accom- 
plish, iron pipe ends filed and covered with resin, 
and then plunged into molten solder, from the 
surface of which all dross has been skimmed, 
and afterwards soldered together, have been 
known to last a considerable time. When tin- 
ning the pipes or making the joints, the solder 
must not be overheated, or failure will result. 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS. 

One objection that is often raised to wiped 
joints is that they are too expensive, and re- 
quire a large quantity of solder. Another is that 
they take up too much tjme, and when they are 
made they are said to be ugly, and have been 
described as a "ball of solder round a pipe." 
It seems very unfortunate that plumbers' work 
should be judged by its worst specimens, but, 
probably, this course of action is justified by 
the principle that the strength of the chain is 
limited to its weakest link. There is no doubt 
that if joints are carefully prepared and prop- 
erly wiped the above objections would be 
groundless, and that for good substantial work 
there is no other kind of joint that is more 
suitable for the purpose. 

In the process of making wiped joints no part 
is so important as the 'preparation. A joint 
may be wiped as nicely and as regularly as pos- 
sible, but if the ends are not properly prepared 
and fitted, it will very often happen that the 
joint will leak by sweating, as it is called, the 
solder is generally supposed to be the cause, 
but more often it is the fault of the imperfect 
preparation of the ends of the pipe. We will 
84 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 85 

suppose, for instance, an upright joint on an 
inch service pipe. Fig. 40 is a sketch showing 
the way a joint of this kind is usually prepared. 
Very often one end barely enters the other, no 
care is taken to see that the ends fit properly 
together, and any space that may be left be- 
tween the two ends is closed up with a hammer. 
As to shaving inside the socket end, this is 
thought quite unnecessary, if not a fault, for 
some think if the socket end is shaved inside, 
it will induce the solder to run through and 
partly fill up the pipe. There is no doubt it 
would do so if the ends do not fit; but that is 
just the thing that is most important, not only 
as regards the solder getting inside the pipe, but 
on it depends, to a very large extent, the sound- 
ness of the joint. 

The general idea is that if the two ends of a 
pipe are shaved and placed together, and a piece 
of solder stuck round them, that is all that is 
required to make a joint. If the solder is not so 
fine as it ought to be, it is the cause of most of 
the leaky joints, and very often the joints are 
found broken right across the center, more es- 
pecially in the case of joint on hot- water, service, 
and waste pipes. It has been remarked 
that the solder is generally blamed for all the 
failures. It is either too coarse or too cold, or 
else it must have got a piece of zinc in it. Other- 
wise, if the joint is made to brasswork, it is that 



86 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 

which has poisoned the solder. In short, every- 
thing gets blamed except the right cause. 

It mnst not he supposed that joint-wiping can 
be taught by books. This can only be accom- 
plished in the workshop or on a plumbing job. 
But as practice is very often greatly assisted by 
precept, probably a few hints on the matter- of 
joint-wiping will be helpful to many who have 
not the opportunities to gain a very large or 
varied experience. In preparing a joint similar 
to the one mentioned, after the two ends are 
carefully straightened, the spigot, or what is 
generally called the male end, should be first 
rasped square, and then tapered with a fine rasp 
quite half an inch back from the end. A fine 
rasp is mentioned because the rasps that are 
used by many plumbers are far too coarse to 
properly rasp the ends of pipes. Generally the 
very coarse rasps are used, it is difficult to say 
why, except it is that they are cheaper than the 
fine rasps, but if the advantages of a fine rasp 
be taken into account, the extra cost would not 
be considered. 

When preparing the ends of the pipe, great 
care should be taken to avoid the raspings get- 
ting into the pipes, these cause no end of time 
and trouble when they get into valves and other 
fittings, after the pipes are filled with water. 

As a rule, it is the back^ stroke of the rasp 
that throws the raspings inside the pipe, espe- 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 87 

clally wlien the pipe is being rasped horizontally, 
or with the end of the pipe pointing upwards. 
If possible, when the ends are being rasped, they 
should either be pointing in a downward direc- 
tion, or else the rasp should not be allowed to 
touch the pipe in its backward stroke. Some 
plumbers place a wad or stopper in the end of 
a pipe when it is being rasped; this is a very 
good precaution to take, providing it is not for- 
gotten and left in the pipe. After the spigot 
end has been rasped, it should be soiled about 
six inches long, but no farther towards the end 
than an inch from the rasped edge. Sometimes 
the soiling is taken right up to the end, but this 
is not a good plan, because, if it is soiled over 
the rasped edge, the shave-hook does not always 
take the soil out of the rasp marks, a point 
which is most important; and as it is quite un- 
necessary to soil farther than the line of shaving, 
the soil at the end is quite superfluous. Many 
plumbers soil the ends before they rasp them 
with the same object in view, but this is not a 
good plan, because very often in rasping the 
ends, the end of the rasp is likely to scratch the 
soiling, making it necessary to touch up the soil- 
ing again. 

If the soil is good it is an advantage to rub it, 
after it is dry, with a piece of carpet or a hard 
brush, a dry felt will do. This makes the sur- 
face of the soil smooth and more durable, and 



88 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 

not so likely to flake off when the joint is wiped. 
The best soil is made from vegetable black and 
diluted glue with a little sugar, and finely 
ground chalk added. The proportion of the in- 
gredients depends to a large extent on their 
quality. Lamp black and size are generally used, 
but if the black is not very good it is very diffi- 
cult to make soil fit for use, it will rub or peel 
off and become a nuisance. Good soil, and a 
properly made soil pot and tool, are indispensa- 
ble to a plumber who wishes to turn out a good 
quality of work. Any makeshift does for a 
soil pot with a great many plumbers. Some 
use an old milk-can or a saucepan. It is much 
better to have a good copper pot, with a handle. 
Most plumbers should be able to make a soil 
pot with a piece of sheet copper, otherwise a 
coppersmith would make one for a small sum. 
Before soiling the end of the pipe, it is always a 
good plan to chalk it well. This will counteract 
the effects of the grease that is nearly always 
found on the surface of new lead pipes. If the 
pipe is very greasy, it is still better to* scour 
it well with a piece of card-wire before it is 
chalked and soiled. The scouring is not always 
necessary, but it is always best to carry a piece 
of card-wire in case of need. 

When the end of the pipe has been properly 
soiled, it should be shaved the length required, 
th-At is, about half an inch longer than half the 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 89 

length of the joint, thus allowing half an inch 
for socketing into the other end. Grease, or 
"touch," as it is called by plumbers, should 
immediately be rubbed over the shaved part to 
prevent oxidation. The socket end of the pipe 
should now be rasped square and opened with a 
long tapered turnpin— a short stumpy turnpin 
is not a proper tool for this purpose, although 
many of this kind are used. After rasping the 
edge of the pipe, the rasped part should be par- 
allel with the side of the pipe, as shown at Fig. 
39. It is not at all necessary for the edge of 
the socket end to project, nor to reduce the bore 
of the pipe in the joint; but if the ends are pre- 
pared, as shown at Figs. 40 and 41, it would 
be necessary to open the socket end an extra- 
ordinary width to get the same depth of socket, 
and then a much larger quantity of solder would 
be required to cover the edge, which would make 
the shape of the joint look ugly, and not make 
such a reliable joint either. 

When the socket end is properly fitted, it 
should be soiled and shaved half the length of 
the intended joint. The inside of the socket 
should also be shaved about half an inch down 
and touched. 

If the solder is used at a proper heat and 
splashed on quickly, so as to well sweat the sol- 
der in between the two surfaces where the ends 
are socketed, the joint is made, so far as the 



90 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 



soundness is concerned, independent of the wip- 
ing or the form and shape of the solder when 
it is finished. In fact, if a joint is prepared in 
a proper manner, it would be sound in most in- 
stances if the solder was wiped bare to the 
edge of the socket end. Of course, it would not 




1 




1 


^ 


! 


1 


. 







Fig. 39. 



Fig. 40. 



be advisable to do this, but still, a. joint should 
and could be quite independent of the very large 
quantity of solder that is frequently used. But 
when a large amount of solder is seen on a joint, 
it can generally be taken for granted that the 
plumber that made it, when he prepared the 




Fig-. 41a 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 91 

ends, took great pains to close up the edge of 
the socket end to the spigot end so that it fitted 
tight, so tight was this edge, that it prevented 
the slightest particle of solder getting in be- 
tween. The consequence very often is, that if 
the plumber is not quick at wiping the joint, and 
keeps the solder moving until it is nearly cold, 
or at least cold enough to set, the whole of the 
solder on the joint will be in a state of porous- 
ness, or, in other words, instead of the solder 
cooling into a compact mass, the contin- 
ual moving of it by the act of wiping 
causes the particles, as they become crystal- 
lized by cooling, to be disturbed and partially 
disintegrated. The result is, that under a mod- 
erate pressure the water will percolate through 
the joint and cause what is generally termed 
"sweating." Very often it is rather more than 
sweating, it can more correctly be compared to 
water running through a sieve. Under some con- 
ditions it is not a very easy matter to prevent 
this sweating, especially if 'the solder is very; 
coarse, or is poisoned by zinc or other delete- 
rious matters. The great advantage of leaving 
the socket end open is, that if the solder is used 
at a good heat, as it always should be when it 
is splashed on, it runs into the socket at such a 
heat that, when it cools, it sets much firmer than 
that part of the solder which has been disturbed 
by the forming of the joint. 



JOINT-WIPING. 

Joint-wiping forms an important branch in the 
art of plumbing. It is a part of the work which 
requires more care, skill and practice than any 
of the other branches, and on it depends the 
success or failure of some of the most particu- 
lar jobs in sanitary plumbing. Many serious 
cases of disease have been traced to bad joint- 
wiping. It is not expected that a joint can un- 
der all conditions, be as perfectly symmetrical 
and well proportioned as if it had been turned 
in a lathe. The best workmen have to leave 
joints that they would be ashamed of, as far as 
the appearance is concerned, if they were made 
on the bench or in some convenient place. There 
are too many who seem to think that sound work 
is good work, and therefore never try to make 
their work look as creditable as it should. The 
different styles of joint-wiping are so numerous, 
that one could go to any length describing the 
many eccentricities and peculiarities that are 
displayed in this particular branch of the trade. 
Of course every one has his own peculiar ideas 
in most matters, and no person does a thing ex- 
actly like another. 

After a helper has been at the trade for a 
92 



JOINT-WIPING 93 

short time, his one great ambition is to wipe a 
joint. He seems to think that if he can only 
manage to get a small portion of solder to ad- 
here to a piece of pipe, and then so manipulate 
it as to induce it to take the form of an egg or 
a turnip, as the case may be, he has done some- 
thing to be proud of, and soon begins to think 
he ought to be a full-blown plumber. Another 
question with regard to joints is the proper 
lengths to make them. Some like long joints, 
others prefer short ones. The advocates of long- 
joints say that short joints are ugly, and are not 
proportionate. They are often compared to tur- 
nips, and other things not quite so regular in 
shape. Those who are in favor of short joints 
say the long ones are not so sound, that they 
will not stand a great pressure, and are liable 
to sweat. It is ridiculous to make joints of 
enormous lengths, when a joint made more in 
proportion to the diameter of the pipe would not 
only be much stronger, but would look far neat- 
er, and generally require less solder. Then there 
is the question of wiping-cloths. A great many 
plumbers like a very thick cloth for wiping 
joints, but, on the other hand, as many more 
say they cannot wipe joints with thick cloths. 
Many plumbers who are used to thick cloths 
and can wipe joints as easily as possible, are 
quite beaten if they try to use thin cloths. The 
difference in the thickness of cloths is very great 



94 JOINT-WIPING 

in some cases. Very thin cloths are not suitable 
for making joints a nice shape. When a plumb- 
er gets used to a reasonably thick cloth he can 
make joints far better and easier than if he used 
thin ones. Generally, plumbers who use thin 
cloths make joints very short and lumpy, and 
bare at the ends, so that the shaving is shown 
about an eighth to three-eights from the ends. 
But when thicker cloths are used it is much 
easier to make joints more like the proper shape. 
This is very important in all joint-wiping, be- 
cause wherever the shaving is left bare, the pipe 
is weaker here than any other part, whereas, 
if a joint is properly made, this part of it should 
be the strongest. In a large number of in- 
stances, when a pipe is subject to much expan- 
sion and contraction, it will break at this weak 
point very soon after it is fixed. It would be 
difficult to say generally what should be a. proper 
thickness for cloths, excepting that they should 
be in proportion to the width and length. Cloths 
for large joints should be much thicker than 
those used for small ones, because the larger the 
cloth is, the more difficult it is to keep it in the 
shape required for wiping the joint. If a cloth 
used for making a four-inch joint were made of 
only about six thicknesses of moleskin, it 
would be no more, or at least but little more, use 
than one generally used for three-quarter or one- 
inch joints, because when a small amount of sol- 



JOINT-WIPING 95 

der falls on it, the cloth would bend down and 
let the solder fall, so that the solder would not 
remain in the cloth except that caught in the 
middle, where the hand is under it. Conse- 
quently, there is much difficulty in getting up 
the great heat necessary to make a large joint. 
Then supposing it were possible to get up the 
heat sufficient to wipe the joint, it is useless to 
try to make the point as regular as would be the 
case if moderately thick cloth were used. The 
reason is, that when the cloth is hot it gives too 
much to the pressure of each finger, and there- 
fore presses unequally on the surface of the 
joint, making it either bare at the edges and 
showing the tinning, or causing the body of the 
joint to be irregular and bad in shape, more es- 
pecially at the bottom where it is nearly bare. 

A cloth should be just thick enough to prevent 
the impression of the fingers having any in- 
fluence on the body of the joint, but at the same 
time it should be thin enough to allow it to be 
bent the shape required without any great exer- 
tion. A cloth cannot be employed like a mould 
used by a plasterer to mould a cornice, if it 
could, it would not be so difficult, and require 
so much practice to make a joint as it does. Al- 
though there can be no doubt that suitable tools 
v are indispensable to the workman, yet it must 
be remembered, by plumbers especially, that the 
cloth, however well made both in size and shape, 



96 



JOINT-WIPING 



will not make a joint without it is manipulated 
by an intelligent and experienced hand. 

Wiping Horizontal Joints. In the making of 
wiped joints one of the greatest mistakes that is 
generally made is that of using too thin cloths. 
It is very difficult, if not altogether impossible, 
to make a good shaped joint with' a thin cloth. 
The joints shown at A and B in Fig. 42 are 






Fig. 42. 



the? kind ol joint generally made with a thin 
cloth. By thin cloths are meant about five 
thicknesses of moleskin or ticking. Ticking, 



JOINT-WIPING 97 

however, is not nearly so suitable for the pur- 
pose as moleskin. Another objection to the use 
of thin cloths is their liability to get hot too 
quickly. Before the joint is finished it is al- 
most impossible to hold the cloth on account o*f 
the intense heat. A cloth suitable to make a 
good wiped joint should consist of about eight 
thicknesses of moleskin. The width of a good 
cloth should be about an inch longer than the 
joint, and the length about the same or perhaps 
a little longer. 

It will not be found a good plan to fold up the 
cloth out of one piece of material, as when the 
folds are at the sides, it is difficult to make the 
cloth bend as is required when in use. The bet- 
ter plan is to cut the cloth into pieces, of twice 
the length and exactly the same width as the 
cloth is required to be when finished. These 
should be folded once and then sewn together at 
the edge as shown in Fig. 43. To those who 
are in the habit of using thin cloths it will no 
doubt be found rather awkward at first to use 
thick ones, but a little practice will show that 
they are much more convenient to use and will 
turn out a better shaped joint as shown at C in 
Fig. 42. Thin cloths after they are hot get 
out of shape and give too much, with the result 
that the edges of the joint are often wiped bare. 
Another and very important advantage of thick 
cloths is that the joints may be made much 



98 



JOINT-WIPING 



lighter, as it does not necessarily follow that be- 
cause a large amount of solder is used on a joint 
it is any more sound or stronger than a lighter 
one. 

When the solder on the joint is at such a heat 
as to make it difficult to keep it on the pipe, it 
should be patted round with the cloth, and the 




Fig. 



surplus solder on the edges wiped off. The 
cloth should now be taken in the right hand, as 
shown in Fig. 44, and the wiping commenced 
at the back of the joint. While drawing the cloth 
upwards, the forefinger should be used to clean 
the edge nearest to it, after which the little 
finger should be used to clean the other edge. 
As soon as the edges are clean, the body of the 



JOINT-WIPING 99 

joint can be formed with the middle of the cloth. 
Then take the cloth in the left hand, and push- 
ing the surplus solder downwards, clean the out- 
side edges of the joint with the fore and little 
fingers. Now take the cloth in the middle of 
the right hand, pressing equally with each finger 
so that the cloth touches the whole length of 
the joint, wipe round as far as is convenient 
with the right hand, then change quickly to the 



Fig. 44 . 

left hand and continue the wiping under the 
joint to the other side. It may be sometimes 
necessary to wipe the joint round this way two 
or even three times before it is smooth and 
clean, but it is much the better way to avoid 
wiping the surface more than is necessary. The 
sooner a joint is left alone after it is formed, 
the better it will be, both for looks and reliabil- 
ity. 
Wiping Upright Joints. When wiping an up- 



100 



JOINT-WIPING 



right joint as shown in Fig. 45, it is better to 
proceed by stages than to try to wipe the joint 
all at once. The first stage is to pour on the 
metal and tin the joint, that is, cause a film of 
solder to alloy with the surface of the pipe. 




Fig. 45. 



When the above described operation has been 
performed, the iron should be made hot, and 
the joint should be splashed by means of the 
splash-stick, until the pipe is hot enough and 



JOINT-WIPING 101 

sufficient solder is on it to allow of the wiping 
cloth to be used. Great care should be used in 
melting the solder, if allowed to get red-hot the 
solder deteriorates. The soldering-iron should 
be heated to the right temperature and the bit 
filed clean and bright. The solder should first 
be splashed on the shaved portion of the pipe 
and then on about two inches of the soiled part 
at each end of the pipe. The cloth should al- 
ways be held under the place where the solder 
is being splashed on, to catch the surplus solder. 
As the solder runs down the sides of the pipe 
and is caught in the cloth, it is pressed up 
against the pipe to keep up the heat and also 
to tin the pipe. 

As soon as the pipe has been well tinned, the 
solder should be formed into the shape of a 
joint. Begin at the top of the joint, and with 
the hot iron in one hand and the cloth in the 
other, rub the iron over the solder on the joint 
and wipe round with the cloth quickly and 
lightly, working downwards until the joint is 
finished. When the joint has partially cooled, 
it may be cleansed and brightened by rubbing it 
over with tallow and wiping off with a clean 
soft rag. 

Wiping Branch Joints. Fig. 46 shows a badly 
shaped joint that is often made by the use 
of a thin cloth, while Fig. 46a shows a joint 
that may be much more readily made by the 



102 JOINT-WIPING 

use of a thick cloth. When everything is ready 
and the solder is at a suitable heat, it should be 
splashed on very carefully while at the same 
time the pipe should be warmed for a few inches 




Fig. 



each side of the joint with the solder. When 
the solder on the joint is at such a heat as to 
make it difficult to keep it on the pipe with con- 
tinually drawing it up, take a small clean iron 



JOINT-WIPING 103 

at a dull red heat, and start wiping at one end 
of the joint. Carefully form the sides of the 
joint and wipe the solder as hot as possible by 
the continual application of the iron before each 




part of the joint is wiped. Finish the joint at 
the same end as it was started by drawing the 
wipe-off to the outside edge of the joint. 



104 JOINT-WIPING 

A lead pipe can be wiped to a cast iron pipe 
with a fair amount of ease, but the joint will not 
stand satisfactorily. The best way is to file clean 
the end of the cast-iron pipe and then coat it 
with pure tin, using sal-ammoniac as a flux. The 
pipe is then washed to remove the sal-ammoniac, 
and afterwards re-tinned, using resin and grease 
as a flux. A plumber's joint, 3% inches long for 
4-inch pipes, is then wiped in the usual way. 
Great pains will have to be taken to make a good, 
sound, strong joint between the two metals. Nev- 
ertheless, in the course of time, it may be only a 
few years, the cast iron will come out of the 
solder. The first sign of decay will be a red ring 
of iron rust showing at the end of the joint. This 
rust will swell a little and cause the end of the 
soldering to curl slightly outwards. Eventually 
the rust will creep between the solder and the 
iron and destroy the adhesion of the one to the 
other. Only those metals that alloy together can 
be satisfactorily joined by soft soldering, and the 
solder should contain as great a, proportion as 
possible of the metals that are to be united. The 
joint would, if out of doors, be subjected to tem- 
peratures ranging over 90° Fahrenheit, under' 
such conditions the solder would expand .001251 
inch, and the iron would expand .000549 inch, or 
less than half as much as the solder. The joint 
would therefore eventually become a Joose ring 
on the iron pipe, but not on the lead pipe, as the 



JOINT-WIPING 105 

expansion of lead and solder do not differ ma- 
terially. 

Numerous experiments have been tried for 
overcoming the difficulty of wiping joints on or- 
dinary tin-lined pipes, but the only method which 
has been found to approach success has been to 
insert a long nipple of tinned sheet iron, this 
method, however, has not been wholly successful 
with the ordinary make of tinned pipe. How- 
ever, on a new kind of tin-lined pipe, wiped joints 
can be made very easily, without the tin lining 
melting. 

It would often be a convenience if copper pipes 
could be united satisfactorily by wiping, but 
plumbers' wiped joints are of no use with cop- 
per tube, for the expansion and contraction will 
not permit them to remain sound, as many hot- 
water engineers know to their cost, brazed joints 
would be satisfactory, though troublesome to 
make. If copper pipe is thick enough to be 
threaded, have the fittings threaded also, and 
screw them together the same as with iron pipe, 
except that with long runs there must be expan- 
sion joints or other provision made for expan- 
sion. Even when a wiped joint on copper pipes 
is strongly made by sweating on a sleeve and 
then wiping a joint over the whole, it is doubt- 
ful if it would be permanent. It is very prob- 
able that electrolysis would set in, if the pipe is 
in damp ground. However, should circumstances 



106 JOINT-WIPING 

suggest that a wiped joint might answer, the 
work is done as described below. 

Wiped joints on copper pipes are longer than 
wiped joints on lead pipes. Copper pipes 2 inches 
or more in diameter have joints from 3% to 4 
inches long, 4-inch pipes have joints about 5 
inches long, but it must be remembered that 
whilst reasonable length and thickness of joint 
are necessary to enable the copper pipe to with- 
stand pressure and strain, the maximum time of 
service does not depend on the length or thick- 
ness of the joint as in lead pipe work. That 
which determines practically the life of the joint 
is the extent of pipe which is carefully tinned 
before making the wiped joint. If the interiors 
of the two pipe ends are tinned, say, for 6 to 8 
inches, if the joint is cut open, in a few years' 
time, it is found that the tinning has diminished 
to 2 or 3 inches, a corroding action having taken 
place at the end of the tinning, for this reason 
it is advisable that the tinning be fairly thick, 
so as to retard the separation and ultimate fail- 
ure of the joint, In tinning copper, first thor- 
oughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid or 
scour with sand and water, and then rinse it 
with chloride of zinc, known as killed spirits. 
Melt some pure tin, throw in sal-ammoniac as a 
flux, and dip the copper in the tin, or pour or rub 
the latter over the copper. In pipes forming a 
portion of a distillery plant it is especially im- 



JOINT-WIPING 107 

portant that untinned spots are not left on the 
interiors of the pipe ends, as at such spots the 
destruction of the tinning commences at once. 
The pipe is strengthened by putting one pipe 
within the other, and the corrosion of the tinning 
is arrested when it reaches the lap. If sufficient 
lap is given, the pipe may be handled before the 
joint is wiped — a great convenience. The pipe 
ends are placed together, when practicable, over 
the iron pot containing the molten solder, which 
is then poured continuously over the joint until 
a heat is got up. This practice is not possible 
with lead or brass pipes, because in the one case 
the lead would melt, and in the other the molten 
zinc would leave the brass and ruin the solder. 
When the pipes cannot be moved, a shovel is 
placed beneath the joint and the solder poured 
on rapidly. When a thorough heat has been ob- 
tained, the joint can be wiped, with the aid of a 
cloth and of the mushy solder from the shovel, in 
much the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is 
wiped. 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING OR LEAD 
BURNING. 

The art of lead burning has for many years 
been kept quite distinct from plumbing gener- 
ally, it is nevertheless a branch of the trade, and 
one in which large numbers of plumbers are be- 
coming very proficient. There is not required a 
large amount of skill or ingenuity in the execu- 
tion of lead burning, because, as a matter of 
fact, when it is compared with first-class plumb- 
ing, it is not nearly so difficult to acquire. In 
most cases where lead burning was considered 
necessary, such for instance as lining large 
tanks in chemical factories especially for the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid, the lead was 
simply used in large sheets fixed with tacks to 
wooden framework and the edges burned to- 
gether. Of late years, however, this method of 
burning the edges of lead together has been 
adopted for numerous other purposes, such as 
the lining of sinks for chemical laboratories, and 
lining cisterns in cases where the water attacks 
the solder. 

The modern term for lead burning is "auto- 
genous soldering." The word " autogenous " is 
rather an ugly one, and somewhat difficult to 
108 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 109 

define, it pertains to the word " autogeneal, " 
which means "self-begotten or generating it- 
self," neither of which is very appropriate to 
the process of lead burning. In fact the latter 
term is not strictly applicable, because the lead 
is not burnt, it is only fused. The most suitable 
term would be "fusing process." Instead of 
saying "the seams are burned," it would be 
better to say "the seams are fused," as this 
would correctly describe the action that takes 
place. 

The simplest kind of lead burning is that 
known as flat seams, and which as a rule is the 
only kind that plumbers are likely to make use 
of. Professional lead burners of course are re- 
quired to burn seams in many different ways, 
even horizontal seams overhead are sometimes 
necessary, When the seams of sinks and cisterns 
have to be burned, the joints should always be 
arranged about 6 inches from the angles. Be- 
cause if the seams are arranged in the angles 
the flame of the blow-pipe is likely to catch the 
surface of the lead at the side and burn them 
through before the seam is formed. It is best 
also to butt the edges of the lead and not to 
lap them. Then when each edge has been shav- 
ed about a quarter of an inch wide, take a strip 
of shaved lead about half an inch wide and di- 
rect the flame on the end until a drop is melted 
and falls on the seam, at the same time the flame 



110 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 

should be directed towards the part of the seam 
to be burned, for the purpose of heating it. 
Then cause the flame to play upon the small 
drop of lead until that and the lead upon which 
it rests are fused, then draw up the flame quick- 
ly. This operation, owing to the intense heat 
of the airo-hydrogen flame, occupies much less 
time than it takes to describe it. So that the 
operator has to be quick in manipulating the 
blast if he wishes to avoid burning the lead over 
a much larger space than is desirable. It must 
not be supposed that a flowing seam like that 
produced by a copper-bit and fine solder can be 
formed by the burning process, this, under the 
circumstances, is not possible. Each wave has 
to be formed separately by a distinct applica- 
tion of the flame. The regularity of these waves 
will depend partly upon the skill of the opera- 
tor, partly upon the quality of the blast and on 
the purity of the lead upon which it is being used. 
But like most other mechanical operations pro- 
ficiency has to be attained by practice and ex- 
perience. When it is found necessary to burn 
seams on the vertical side of a cistern, the lap is 
generally arranged in a slanting direction for 
the purpose of forming a ledge for the drops of 
molten lead to rest upon until they are fused 
into the seam, which is formed of a series of 
drops, instead of waves. A similar appearance 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 111 

is obtained when seams are burned on an up- 
right side of a cistern in a horizontal line. 

Another very convenient way to produce a 
good flame for lead burning is to use compressed 
oxygen and coal gas. The oxygen can be obtain- 
ed in steel bottles, this, being discharged under 
great pressure, is used for the blast instead of 
air, a bellows is therefore unnecessary. 

When it is stated that a small sized blow-pipe 
of this kind with a supply of oxygen at the rate 
of 7 cubic feet per hour, and a gas supply 
through a quarter-inch pipe, will fuse a quarter- 
inch wrought-iron rod easily, the intense heat 
of the flame can be somewhat realized. Probably 
the oxygen method of burning would be rather 
costly where only small jobs of lead burning are 
occasionally required, but where there is a con- 
siderable amount to do the compressed oxygen 
would be far more preferable to the cumber- 
some and often troublesome hydrogen machine. 

There is yet another method which has been 
adopted to a very large extent for lead burning, 
namely the use of a red-hot hatchet copper-bit. 

The seam is placed, in the case of a pipe, on 
an iron mandrel, or if a flat seam, on an iron 
plate, and the hot copper-bit is drawn through, 
slowly fusing the ]ead together as it goes. A 
core or bed of sand will also answer the pur- 
pose. 

It is, of course, a rough and ready way of 



112 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 

doing the work, and it involves a large amount 
of time and labor in cleaning off the seams. But 
it is nevertheless effectual, and, where more skil- 
ful means are not at hand, it often serves the 
purpose in a rough way. It would not, however, 
do for general application, in fact, in numerous 
instances where lead burning is required, it 
would not be at all practicable. 

In conclusion, it may be well to point out that 
the idea of substituting the burning system for 
soldering generally in plumbers' work is not at 
all likely to be an accomplished fact. It is all 
very well for special purposes, but the art of 
soldering in the modern style is too well estab- 
lished to be ever superseded by the compara- 
tively inartistic methods of lead fusing. Not 
only is lead burning not so attractive or so sub- 
stantial in appearance as soldering, but it is not 
nearly so well adapted to general plumbers' 
work, and there does not at present seem any 
probability of it ever becoming a successful com- 
petitor. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS. 

Soil and Waste Pipe Fittings. One-quarter 
and one-sixth, and one-eighth and one-sixteenth 




Fig. 47. 






Fig. 48. 



cast iron soil pipe bends or elbows are shown 
in Figs. 47 and 48 respectively, and long one- 
quarter and one-eighth bend in Figs. 49 and 50. 
113 



114 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Quarter bends with heel and side outlets are 
shown in Figs. 51 and 52. 

A long quarter turn or sanitary bend is shown 
in Fig. 53. 

Figures 54, 55 and 56 show a T-branch soil 
pipe with left-hand inlet, a sanitary T-branch 





Pig. 49. 



Fig. 50. 



with right-hand inlet and a Y-branch with right- 
hand inlet, respectively. 

A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a Y- 
branch and a half Y-branch are shown in Figs, 
57, 58, 59 and 60. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 115 





Fig. 51. 



Fig. 52. 




Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



116 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 




Fig. 55. 



Fig. 56. 




Pig. 57. 




Fig. 58. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



117 



A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-brancli, a cross 
and a sanitary cross all tapped for iron pipe are 
shown in Figs. 61 and 62. 





Fig. 59. 



Fig. 60. 





Fig. 61. 



118 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain cross, a sanitary cross, a double T- 
brancli and double half Y-branch are shown in 
Figs. 63, 64, 65 and 66, 





Fig. 62. 




Fig. 63. 



Fig. 64. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



119 



A ventilating cap and a Y-saddle hub are il- 
lustrated in Fig. 67, and half Y-saddle hub and 
a T-saddle hub in Fig. 63. 




Fig. 65. 




A ventilating branch tapped for iron pipe, an 
inverted Y-branch and a plain ventilating branch 
pipe are shown in Figs. 69, 70 and 71. 



120 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 





Fig. 67. 





Fig. 68. 





Fig. 



Fig. 70. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



121 



A T-branch, a sanitary T-branch and a Y- 
branch with trap-screw are shown in Figs. 72, 
73 and 74. 





Fig. 71. 



Fig. 72. 





Fig. 73. 



Fig. 74. 



122 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Traps, A running trap with hand-hole and 
cover, and one with two hub-vents are illus- 
trated in Figs. 75 and 76. 




Fig. 75. 




Fig. 76, 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



123 



A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a 

half S-trap, are illustrated in Figs. 77, 78 and 79. 

An S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 




Fig. 77. 





Fig. 78. 



Fig. 79. 



124 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



S-trap, all with hand-hole and cover, are shown 
in Figs. 80, 81 and 82. 




Fig. 80. 




Fig. 81. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



125 



A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 
S-trap all with top vent are shown in Figs. 83, 
84 and 85. 




Fig. 82 




Fig. 83. 



126 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain running- trap and a running trap with 
hub-vent are illustrated in Figs. 86 and 87. 
Lead Traps. Traps with full S, three-quarter 




Pig. 84. 




Fig. 85. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



127 



S, half S or P and running bends are shown 
in Fig. 88, both plain and vented. 




Fig. 86. 




Fig. 87. 



128 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



CO 

a 

u 







DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



12? 



o 






•a 

i 

s 




a fL||]-l */* 



130 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Extra long plain and vented S-traps are also 
shown in Fig. 89. 




Fig 93. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



131 



Hopper Traps. A high pattern S-trap for lead 
pipe connections is shown in Fig. 90, and a high 
pattern three-quarter and half S-trap for iron 
pipe connections in Figs. 91 and 92. 




Pig. 94. 



Fig. 95. 




Fig. 96. 



132 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain three-quarter S high pattern hopper 
trap, a three-quarter S high pattern hopper trap 
with hub-vent and three-quarter S high pattern 




hopper trap with hand hole and cover, are 
shown in Figs. 93, 94 and 95. 
A high pattern plain S-trap, a high pattern S- 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



133 



trap with hub-vent and a high pattern S-trap 
with hand hole and cover, all for lead pipe con- 
nections, are shown in Figs, 96, 97 and 98. 

The same style of S-traps only for iron pipe 
connections are shown in Figs. 99, 100 and 101. 




Fig. 99. 




Fig- 100. 



134 DRAINAGE FITTINGS 




Fig. 101. 




Fig. 102. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



135 



A half S-trap plain, a half S-trap with hub- 
vent and a half S-trap with hand hole and cover 
are shown in Figs. 102, 103 and 104. 

Sewer gas and back water traps are shown in 
Fig. 105. They have hand holes and covers and 




Fig. 103. 




Fig. 104. 



136 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



swing check valves to prevent any back flow of 
water. 




Fig. 106. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



137 



Brass trap caps with straight and bent coup- 
lings are shown in Figs. 106 and 107. 

Cleanouts. Cleanouts with hand-hole and 
swivel cover, with hand-hole and bolted cover 




Pig. 107. 




Fig. 108. 



138 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



and with brass trap-screw are shown in Figs. 
108, 109 and 110. 




Fig. 109. 




Fig. 110. 




Fig. 111. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



139 



Cesspools. A hydrant cesspool for use with 
cellar or outdoor hydrants is shown in Fig. 111. 
A stable cesspool with bell-trap and grating is 




Fig. 113. 



140 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



illustrated in Fig. 112, while Fig. 113 shows a 
slop sink with bell-trap and strainer. A cellar 
cesspool with bell-trap and grating of rectangu- 
lar shape is shown in Fig. 114, while one of cir 
cular shape is illustrated in Fig. 115. 




Fig. 115. 



SANITARY PLUMBING. 

The Bathroom. There are good reasons why 
a bathroom should be finished in the best man- 
ner in preference to any other room in the house. 
Asa rule,* the bathroom is more used than any 
other room in the house except the kitchen. It 
requires the best material to stand such con- 
stant use, and it is always economy to have the 
best material for purposes where hard usage or 
work is to be performed. Without a good fin- 
ish, with the proper materials for this purpose, 
the bathroom cannot be kept in a sanitary con- 
dition. From the sanitary condition of the bath- 
room the sanitary condition of the entire house 
may be judged. Any person who pays atten- 
tion to the sanitary condition of a house, can 
also tell the nature of the people who occupy it. 
Where the bathroom is neglected, scarcely any 
other part of the house will be in a proper sani- 
tary condition. 

A bathroom should be well lighted with win- 
dows, so that the sunlight may come in. It 
should be heated to a much higher temperature 
than any other room in the house, and should be 
thoroughly ventilated. The walls, doors, and 
casings should be of such material that they will 
141 



142 SANITARY PLUMBING 

be proof against water and steam. The floors 
should never be covered with carpet, as it is a 
very unsanitary thing in any bathroom. Hard 
wood makes a good floor for a bathroom. 

The bathroom of the modern house is often 
the most expensive room in the house, as today 
people who have both taste and means are spend- 
ing large sums of money in securing the most 
sanitary fixtures for the bathroom and the high- 
est degree of art in everything pertaining to 1 
the bathroom. 

Mixing Valve. A very important feature in 
connection with the installation of a bath tub, 
especially if there is to be a shower included with 
it, is a reliable mixing valve by means of which 
the incoming water can be regulated and main- 
tained at any temperature desired, and for long 
or short periods at the discretion of the user. 
Modern usage demands that a mixing valve be 
quick acting and that all changes of temperature 
can be made by means of a single operating han- 
dle. Another important object to be attained, par- 
ticularly in the case of shower baths is, that no 
more water be used than necessary and this also 
may be accomplished by the use of a good mixing 
valve. Fig. 116 illustrates in detail the construc- 
tion of a mixing valve, or mixometer that is made 
by the Speakman Company of Wilmington, Del., 
who make a specialty of modern bath and shower 
fixtures, several of which are illustrated and de- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



143 









Fig-. 116 
Mixometer 



144 SANITARY PLUMBING 

scribed on succeeding pages. Referring to Fig. 
116, it will be seen that the body of this valve 
consists of three chambers. The two lower cham- 
bers are designed, one for hot and one for cold 
water, while the upper chamber is designed for 
" mixed' ' water of the desired temperature. The 
inlets are attached to the lower chambers and 
the outlet to the upper chamber. Between the 
lower and upper chambers there are two ports 
through which the hot and cold water is admitted. 
The graduation of the temperature of " mixed " 
water is obtained by means of two plungers of 
different shapes working in these ports. These 
plungers are raised and lowered by a threaded 
spindle operated by a lever handle. At the base 
of the plungers are encased washers which make 
up tight against the raised face of the port open- 
ings when the valve is closed. It will be noticed 
that there is a difference between the hot and 
cold plungers. The hot plunger has grooves ex- 
tending from the lower end to within a certain 
distance of the upper end. The cold plunger is 
the reverse, having grooves extending from the 
upper end to within a certain distance -of the lower 
end. There are five grooves in each plunger and 
each groove is of different length, thus gradually 
admitting or shutting off the flow of water 
through the ports. Fig. 116 shows the valve 
closed. In this position the grooves in the cold 
plunger extend the entire length of the port, but 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



145 



the grooves in the hot plunger extend only part 
way through the port. 

Fig. 117 shows the valve opened to cold posi- 
tion. The cold plunger is wide open but the 
grooves in the hot plunger have not yet reached 
the top of the port. Cold water only is discharged 
at this point. Fig. 118 shows the plungers in 




position where water passes through the grooves 
of both hot and cold plungers thus giving 
"mixed" water. In this position the hot plunger 
has been raised to where the grooves extend be- 
yond the top of the port, while the cold plunger 
is still open at both top and bottom. By moving 
the handle gradually an accurate graduation of 
the temperature is obtained. If the temperature 
of the hot water heating system is not more than 
110 degrees F. it may be necessary to open the 
valve wide as in Fig. 119 which shows the hot 



146 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



plunger wide open and the cold plunger entirely 
shut off. The plungers and ports in the Speak- 
man mixometer are accurately machined to gauge- 
sizes so that the fit of the plungers in the ports 
is sufficiently close to prevent any water passing 
the plungers except what passes through the 
grooves. The hot and cold plungers are not re- 
versible, as the thread on each is different and 




Fig. 118 



the yoke can be inserted in the valve only in one 
position. Thus it is impossible to assemble the 
valve wrong by getting the cold plunger on the 
hot water side which would give hot water first. 
The volume of water passing through the valve 
is kept constant by the plungers being so arranged 
that as the volume through the hot port is in- 
creased the volume through the cold port is de- 
creased in like proportion. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



147 



Built-in Plumbing. Evolution in plumbing- prac- 
tice lias wrought many changes for the better in 
the appearance, and sanitary condition of the bath 
room. The old system of running lead pipe lines 
in plain view along the walls of the room is rap- 
idly being discarded for the modern method of not 
only running the water lines concealed, but of 




Fig. 119 

building the fixtures themselves in the wall. For 
this purpose the Speakman built-in mixometer is 
peculiarly adapted owing to the fact that the 
valve body proper extends beyond the face of 
the wall thus permitting easy access to the work- 
ing parts which can be withdrawn in a unit when 
necessary by simply unscrewing the valve cap. 
Another advantage in this construction is, that 
should a leak occur on account of not having the 
valve cap securely screwed up it will be notice- 
able at once. 



148 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



Fig. 126 illustrates a typical installation of a 
modern tiled-in bath tub, with a built-in supply 
and waste fixture, and a built-in shower. A no- 




1 

1 
l 



Fig. 120 
Built in Installation 



ticeable feature in this installation is the small 
amount of exposed metal parts as compared with 
the older styles of bath room equipment. The 



SANITARY PLUMBTNCI 



149 







Fig:. 121 
Showing Connections 



150 SANITARY PLUMBING 

bath tub which is tiled in at each end and the 
back, is known as the recessed type, and may be 
either solid porcelain, or porcelain enameled. The 
bath fixture shown in Fig. 120 is the Deshler type 
and is equipped with a number 15 Speakman mix- 
ometer. The shower and bath fixture can be eas- 
ily joined together as shown in Fig. 121 where the 
connections and piping, including the two inch 
standing waste are clearly outlined in the back- 
ground. The bent arm discharge pipe with ball 
joint and 4 inch cast-brass shower head are also 
shown. 

The head, while it is only 4 inches in diameter 
has the holes drilled at accurately gauged angles 
so the water is spread sufficiently to cover the 
entire body of the bather. This head is arranged 
to deliver 6 gallons of water per minute under 
twenty pounds pressure. By placing the shower 
head on an angle as shown the bather can use 
the shower without wetting his head. 

Fig. 122 shows a type of bath tub that is largely 
in use at the present time. It is of the porcelain 
enameled xoll-rim style, having the supply and 
waste fittings directly connected. A solid porce- 
lain roll-rim Sitz bath is shown in Fig. 123. It 
is equipped with nickel plated combination bell 
supply and waste fittings. The plumbing con- 
nections are shown in Fig. 123 a which is self- 
explanatory. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



151 




152 SANITARY PLUMBING 

a bath tub are illustrated in Fig. 124. The cast 
iron soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter, the main 
air pipe 2 inches, and the air-vent pipe leading 
from the trap is 1% inch. The waste and over- 
flow from the tub are also 1% inch in diameter. 




Fig. 123 

Water Closets. In the selection and installa- 
tion of a water closet, or a system of water closets, 
the greatest of care should be exercised, first, 
because of the important sanitary function that 
the water closet is to perform; and second, because 
its principal operating mechanism is permanently 
immersed in water and for this reason the mate^ 
rials used in its construction should be of the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



153 







154 SANITARY PLUMBING 

best quality in order to successfully withstand the 
corrosive action of the water in many localities. 
Great progress has been made in the development 
of new designs; the result of a scientific study 
of the subject. 

The old style of water closet with its high tank 
and chain operated valve is rapidly being replaced 
by modern and more efficient types in some of 
which the tank is set low down, with easily ac- 
cessible operating valve, while other types dis- 
pense with the tank and use flushing valves in- 
stead. Other advantages pertaining to many of 
the modern designs are self -ventilation, noiseless 
operation, and the absence of all odors. 

Many styles are also equipped with some form 
of automatic seat action. A few of the leading 
types will be here described and illustrated. 
These include both the wash-down type, and the 
syphon-jet combination. The Haas flush valve, a 
sectional view of which is shown in Fig. 125, is 
constructed on the principle of equalization of 
pressure. It is cast from the best quality of red 
bronze, and is fitted with a rubber diaphragm 
with extension disc. The valve is regulated to 
deliver measured flush regardless of pressure 
maintained, but duration of flushing period can 
be shortened by slightly diminishing the size of 
the diaphragm guide by the use of emery cloth 
or a fine file. The operation of the valve is as 
follows, referring to Fig. 125: The front area 



SANITARY PLUMBING 155 

Fig. 124 




tBC 



]_•-»*•»— I 



156 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



of the diaphragm is greater than the area of the 
inlet side in snch proportion that when subjected 
to pressure the valve will positively close. The 




Fig-. 125 

Valve Body enclosing- Integrant Controlling Valve 

Cap of Valve Complete 

Diaphragm Valve 

Operating Valve 

Release Channel 

Self Cleaning By-pass 

Front Pressure Chamber 

(Supply Inlet 

Flush Outlet to Bowl 

Push Button 

Integrant Controlling Valve 



water from inlet H passes from back to front of 
diaphragm valve C through an opening or by- 
pass around the guide pin, thus filling the front 



SANITARY PLUMBING 157 

chamber with, water under the same pressure as 
water at the inlet, thereby closing the valve. 
When button J is pushed, pressure in front cham- 
ber is relieved by passing of the water through 
escape port to the bowl thus permitting inlet pres- 




Fig. 126 
Syphon Jet Combination 

sure to raise the diaphragm valve from its seat,, 
thereby allowing a full and unobstructed flushl 
direct to bowl. The by-pass between diaphragm 
and guide pin is maintained self-cleansing, as 
movement of the diaphragm back and forth over 



158 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



the stem prevents accumulation of sediment or 
other substances. This self-cleansing feature is 
of great importance, and is claimed by the makers 




Fig-. 127 

Wash-down Combination 



as being exclusive to the Haas flush valve. The 
diameter of valve cap B is 3% inches. 

Several types of strictly modern up-to-date wa- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 159 

ter closets are shown in the following six illus- 
trations, for which the author desires to acknowl- 
edge his indebtedness to Philip Haas Co. of Day- 
ton, Ohio, who are the manufacturers. 

In Fig. 126 is shown the vitreous syphon jet 
bowl equipped with left hand side inlet spud, 
Haas flush valve with integrant control, oval oak 
seat and cast brass nickel plated hinge with bar 
stop. The flush valve and trimmings are also 
nickel plated. The valve is shown in convenient 
position to user's hand, but water supply may 
be brought in through the wall if desired. Fig. 
127 shows the wash-down combination including 
vitreous wash-down syphon action bowl and Haas 
flush valve with integrant control. The trim- 
mings, etc., are finished similar to those described 
in connection with Fig. 126. 

The flush valve is shown high on the wall with 
inlet 3 feet 2 inches from floor line, allowing user 
to operate the valve without stooping. This ar- 
rangement also permits employment of self-rais- 
ing seat for combination closet and urinal pur- 
poses. Outlet roughing in measurement for this 
type to be not less than 12 inches from the finished 
wall line. 

In Fig. 128 is shown the Haas automatic seat- 
action closet equipped with the Haas monitor 
valve, the action of which is similar to that of 
the flush valve, with the automatic feature added. 
This combination includes a vitreous syphon_jet 



160 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



bowl with two-piece sanitary seat, also a separate 
lock-shield angle compression control. The Haas 
self-ventilating closet is shown in Fig. 129 con- 
sisting of a vitreons syphon action bowl with jet 
boss, extended sanitary lip and cut-away, non- 




Fig. 128 

Automatic Seat Action Closet 
Syphon Jet 

soiling rim in rear, also separate lock shield angle 
compression control. This closet is equipped with 
the monitor automatic valve with the Haas vent 
jet. Outlet roughing in measurement should be 
not less than 17 inches from finished wall line. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



161 



Fig. 130 shows an automatic pressure tank closet 
with seat action and vitreous china wash-down 
bowl, reinforced malleable galvanized hinge and 
Haas master valve having a brace arm to relieve 
the closet spud of practically all strain when the 




Fig. 129 
Haas Self-ventilating- Closet 



valve is operated. A union connection between 
the front and back members allows easy access 
to the working parts. The diameter of the gal- 
vanized pressure tank is 8 inches; length 24 inches, 



162 



SANITARY PLUMBING 







Pig. ISO. 

Automatic Pressure Tank Closet 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



163 




Figr. 131 



Automatic Pressure Tank Closet 
Concealed Tank 



164 SANITARY PLUMBING 

and the pressure should be not less than 25 lbs. 
at point of delivery. 

Another style of automatic pressure tank closet 
is shown in Fig. 131, in which the tank is con- 
cealed behind the partition. The tank is shown 
off center to the right in order to allow room 
for the stack which is often run on center with 
closet outlet. The tank may be placed to the 
left if desired. The dimensions are the same as 
those given for Fig. 130, but the pressure at point 
of delivery should be not less than 35 lbs. This 
closet is equipped with a vitreous china-syphon- 
jet bowl, and Haas master valve with double slip 
joint ell connection to wall. 

In all modern public buildings the conditions 
usually make it necessary to install the water clos- 
ets in batteries of two or more as shown in Figs. 
131 a and 131 b . Fig. 132 shows one method of 
installation for a battery of 12 closets, the pitch 
of the horizontal drainage line being greatly ex- 
aggerated for the purpose of illustration. In reg- 
ular practice, fittings with tapping numbers 1, 
2 and 3 would be used for the first three closets, 
counting from the drainage stack, and from thence 
on up to number 12 the tappings would come in 
regular order. 

Referring to the bowl and fittings shown in the 
lower portion of Fig. 132, the difference in height 
above floor line between tapping 1 and tapping 
12 indicates the pitch of the horizontal drainage 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



165 



Fig-. 131a 




166 



SANITAKY PLUMBING 

Fig. 131b 




SANITARY PLUMBING 




168 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



line in ordinary practice. In installations of this 
kind it is necessary that a pitch coupling be pro- 
vided for each battery of closets, this coupling 
to be located as near as practicable to the inlet 
connection to the stack in order to take care of 
the difference between the pitch of the inlet tap- 
ping and pitch of horizontal drainage line. 




Fig. 133 



This coupling, see Fig. 133, will give any pitch 
from % to % inch to the foot by turning it until 
the required pitch is obtained. 

Where lack of space makes it impossible to 
locate a pitch coupling between the first fitting 
and the stack, it can be inserted between the first 
and second fittings as shown in Fig. 134. In 
case the distance from center of stack to the first 
closet is not sufficient to receive a long turn fitting, 
a short turn fitting may be used for the first closet, 
and long turn fittings used for the balance of 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



169 



the closets as shown in Fig. 135. When closets 
are installed with the stack in the center of the 
battery as shown in Fig. 136, twenty-fonr closets 
may be installed in a single battery, twelve on 
each side of the stack. 

The foregoing remarks relative to the use of 
pitch couplings in the installation of water closets 
in batteries as shown in Figs. 132 to 136 apply 
only to one class of fittings; since according to 




the standard adopted by all manufacturers, the 
inlets of drainage fittings are tapped pitched % 
inch to the foot. The proper sanitary plumbing 
connections for a wash-out water closet are illus- 
trated in Fig. 137. The cast iron soil pipe and the 
lead elbow which connects the trap of the closet 
with the soil pipe are each 4 inches inside dia- 
meter while the air-vent from the lead elbow and 
the main air pipe are 2 inches inside diameter. 
The air-vent pipe is of lead and the main air pipe 
of cast iron. Figs. 137 a and 137 b show methods 



170 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



of making various joints in the installation of 
water closets. 

Urinals. A flat back porcelain nrinal is illus- 
trated in Fig. 138 and a corner porcelain urinal 




PITCH COOPUNG 

Fig-. 135 



in Fig. 139. These are adapted for use in hotels 
and office buildings. Individual stall urinals are 
shown in Figs. 140 and 141. The one shown in 
Fig. 140 has a plain stall floor trough and spray 




Fig-. 136 

pipe, while the one shown in Fig. 141 has urinal 
bowls or hoppers attached to the wall. 

Lavatories. In setting wash bowls to marble 
slabs there are some things to be considered, and 
some calculations to be made. To have wash bowl 



SANITARY PLUMBING 171 




Fig. 137 



174 SANITAEY PLUMBING 

properly fitted to a marble slab it is necessary 
to grind the flange of the bowl so that it will 
lay level on the slab. This is accomplished by 
rubbing the upper surface of the flange of the 
bowl on the marble, using sand and water as the 
grinding medium between the two surfaces until 
the top surface of the flange is perfectly flat and 
even. This grinding action also removes the 
glazed surface of the porcelain and allows the 
plaster-of-paris to take hold and form a perfect 
joint. The bowl should be set even all around 
with the hole in the slab. The less plaster used 
in setting bowls the better will the job be. To 
locate the holes for the bowl clamps, mark on the 
back of the slab the exact position of the edge of 
bowl, then space off the distance and drill the slab 
for at least four clamps. When drilling the slab 
the polished surface should rest on the floor and 
have under it some soft and clean material in 
order to prevent injury from scratching. The 
clamps should be well caulked into the slab with 
melted lead and made so that they will not shake 
or pull out. Fig. 142 shows an independent bowl 
for attachment to marble slab. It is provided 
with a brass plug and coupling, and a rubber 
stopper for the waste. A roll-edge slab and bowl 
with ideal waste is shown in Fig. 143. A vertical 
cross section illustrating the working of the waste 
is shown in Fig. 144. 

Fig. 145 shows a sectional view of the Speak- 



SANITAKY PLUMBING 175 

man acto pop-up waste for lavatories. The action 
is as follows: When knob A is pushed down 
the plug is fully lifted and remains open owing 
to the action of the lifting cam H which in this 
position is past center and thus prevents any 
downward movement of the plug until knob A is 




Pig-. 138 

pulled up which closes the plug. The operating 
rod C revolves freely in turnbuckle D so that no 
strain can be placed on other working parts. B 
is a guide tube which serves as a stop when rod 
C is raised thus forming an additional, preventive 
of strains. E is the adjustment rod fitted with 
a long screw thread to allow ample and easy ad- 



176 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



justment to suit various sizes and types of lava- 
tories. F is a large packing chamber and nut 
which, when properly packed serves to hold the 




Fig-. 139 

plug open and steady when lifted. G is the pack- 
ing. H lifting cam — J metal plug, the bottom of 
which, J' rests freely on cam H, there being no 
connecting link to restrict waterway and compli- 
cate removal of plug. K is a screw to prevent 
removal of the plug except when necessary for 
cleaning. By loosening screw K the plug can be 
easily removed. L shows large waterway through 
the plug body. M is a beveled rubber washer 
for countersunk outlet. This washer can be dis- 
pensed with when the fixture is used on lavatories 
having tapered outlet. N is the established meas- 
ure for lift of metal plug. No adjustment of the 
plug is necessary, thus always insuring seating, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



176a 



and rapid discharge when open, which is an im- 
portant feature. P is the plug body with ample 




Fig. 140 



length thread and lock nut to fit varying thickness 
of lavatories. Q is the tail piece. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 



176b 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



a wash bowl are shown in Fig. 146. The cast iron 
soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter. The waste pipe 




Fig-. 141 



from the bowl, and the air-vent pipe from the 
top of the siphon are each 1% inch, and the main 
air pipe is 2 inches in diameter. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 17Gc 

Hanging Flush Tanks Lavatories, Etc. Figs. 
147 and 148 show methods of doing this work 
as recommended by the U. S. Army E. and R. 
special school. The directions are as follows: 
"Hold fixture against wall, with fixture connec- 
tions in place to determine proper height. Locate 
brackets accordingly and mark the bolt or screw 
holes. Be careful to have fixture level and brack- 




Fig. 142 

ets plumb and fasten them securely to the wall. 
Use wood screws or lag screws when wooden back- 
ing is provided. Use expansion bolts in concrete, 
brick or stone walls. Use toggle bolts in tile, 
patent plaster, marble or sheet metal walls. When 
roughing in the plumbing in a new building with 
frame partitions see that the proper backing is 
built in and located to suit the fixtures which 
are to be attached. In old buildings with frame 
partitions, cut the plaster and lath away and nail 



176d 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



to the studs a board just thick enough to come 
flush with the plaster. For heavy fixtures nail a 
heavier piece between the studs just back of the 
first board. When hanging heavy fixtures on a 
lightly constructed wall extend the bolts through 




Fig. 143 

the wall and place large washers under the bolt 
heads or nuts on the opposite side of wall. 

Adjusting Closet Flush Tanks. Fig. 149 is a 
semi-sectional view of a closet flush tank, show- 
ing the working parts. The following directions 
for adjusting these closets are issued by the U. S. 
Army E and R special school: "1. Flush the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



176e 



closet and watch the water flowing into the closet 
bowl. If water does not siphon out of the bowl 
before the tank is empty bend the ball cock lever 
up until the water rises in tank to about one inch 
from top of overflow pipe. 2. If the water over- 
flows into overflow pipe, bend the ball cock lever 
down to shut the water supply off before it can 




Pig. 144 

overflow. 3. If the water rises over top of ball 
float or continues to run after siphonage has taken 
place examine packing, flush ball, and flush valve 
seat, and either renew packing or worn out parts, 
or reseat valve. 4. If the water continues to 



176f 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



flow into bowl and the tank does not refill, bend 
the wires or shift the brackets which guide the 
flush ball so that it drops directly into proper 
position on flush valve seat." 




Fig. 145 
Acto-Pop up Waste for Lavatories 

Relieving Stoppages in Drains. When lava- 
tories, tubs or sinks will not drain, open the trap 
and clean it out, or push a heavy wire or waste 
pipe cleaner through the opening in trap to re- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



176g 




Fig. 146 



176h 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



move obstruction. Another method is to keep 
the trap closed and apply a force cup or pump, 
see Fig. 150, to the outlet of the fixture from 
which water does not drain. If several fixtures 
discharge into the same waste pipe it will be nec- 
essary to plug the openings including the over- 
flows of all the other fixtures in that group before 
applying force to clean any particular one. To 




Fig. 147 



remove or locate a stoppage in a water closet 
use a flexible cleaner or a force pump. Some- 
times after a stoppage in a water closet has been 
relieved by means of a force pump the stoppage 
returns in a short time. This may be due to a 
pencil, stick or bottle having been accidentally 
dropped into the closet and become lodged in the 
passage. In this case it will be necessary to dis- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 176i 

connect the fixture to remove the obstruction If 
sewage backs up into the lower fixtures of a drain- 
age system, open the cleanout at base of stack 
If sewage comes out at this point push a flexible 
rod or heavy wire (Fig. 151) into the drain lead- 
ing to mam sewer to remove or at least to locate 
the stoppage. If drain cannot be relieved in this 
way, mark the rod to indicate the distance to 





Fig-. 148 

point of stoppage, measure this distance along 
the line of drain then dig down and break a small 
hole into the drain and use the rod again. In 
some cases it is necessary to do this at several 
points. Holes which have been broken through 
sewer drains should be covered, first with a piece 
of galvanized sheet metal, and then with cement. 
After stoppage has been relieved pour into the 
drain a strong solution of sal-soda, concentrated 



176j 



SANITAKY PLUMBING 



lye or special pipe cleaner. Do not permit any- 
thing else to enter the drain for about one honr, 
then flush it thoroughly with boiling hot water. 
Fig. 151 a shows various styles of cleanouts. 
Making up Pipe. To determine the lengths of 




Ball ' 
''Flush Voire Seat 



Fig. 149 



pipe to be cut in making up a job with standard 
fittings, subtract from the distance between cen- 
ters of the two fittings, the size of the side open- 
ings of each fitting. When valves, unions or other 
than standard fittings are used, add one inch to 



SANITAKY PLUMBING 176k 

distance between fittings to provide % inch ex- 
tension of the pipe into each fitting. This amount 
is usually allowed for pipe 2 inches or less in 
size. Fig. 152 illustrates methods for obtaining 
measurements for cutting, as for instance: The 




Fig. 150 

distance between centers of A and B is 24 inches. 
From this subtract % inch which is the side open- 
ing of A, and 1 inch which is the side opening of 
B. This leaves 22% inches as the length to cut 
the pipe. Again: assume the distance between 
end of B and end of G equals 26 inches. Add one 
inch to this length to provide for % inch exten- 



SOW- PNP^ 



Qf\V\VJV\ 










ROW* -- 












^i^^NlT" ^^ ' 



cov^ 



^ 



CA^T 



V?vOX\ 




ci^Knovns 



Gi\*\Sy\ 






Fig". 151a 

1761 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



176m 



sion of pipe into each fitting, thus 26 + 1 equals 
27 inches which is the length to cut the pipe. 
Always screw fittings on pipe by hand. If no 




pipe vise is available, use a second pipe wrench 
to hold the pipe. True threads will form a per- 
fect joint but in practice it is safest to use a dope 




Fig. 152 



composed of red lead, white lead, litharge or 
graphite in oil in order to insure a tight joint. 
Apply the dope to the threads of the pipe, not 



176n 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



threads in the fittings. To connect two sections 
of pipe with a right-and-left coupling see Fig. 
153, screw coupling on right hand thread and mark 




.packing 




Fig. 154 



distance with chalk. Take off the coupling and 
count the threads that were covered. Do the same 
on left hand thread, also counting threads cov- 
ered. Screw coupling on the piece with the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 176o 

greater number of threads until the same num- 
ber of threads is exposed on both pipe ends. 
Then engage the free end and both will tighten 
at the same time. Fig. 154 shows method of 
making a running thread joint formed by con- 
tinuing to turn stock and die as far as desired. 
A lock nut and packing serve to make a firm 
joint in this type of connection. 



WATER SERVICE 177 

The first step in the process of installing the 
Water service system in a building is, to procure 
from the proper authorities a permit for the in- 
troduction or use of water in the building. 

The tapping of the street main is done by work- 
men in the employ of the water department of the 
city, or town. A cock, called a corporation cock 
is screwed into the main, and to this cock a section 
of lead pipe, the length of which is governed by 
local rulings, is connected by means of a wiped 
joint. Lead pipe should in all cases be used for 
making this connection, for the reason that, owing 
to its pliability, there is much less danger of break- 
age caused by the settling of the main, or of the 
service pipe, than there would be were the con- 
nection made with wrought iron pipe which would 
be rigid. 

The size of the service leading to the building 
will depend, of course, upon the amount of water 
that will be required ; and if two or more distinct 
and separate buildings are to be supplied by means 
of branch, or sub-service pipes supplied by a 
single tap in the street main, each branch should 
be independently arranged with a stop cock and 
box on the curb line. 

These stop cocks are for the purpose of shutting 
off the water when required, and each service pipe 
must be equipped with one, located within the side- 
walk at, or near the curb line of the same. 

The service pipe leading from the street main 
into the building must be laid below the frost line. 



178 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Stop Cock in Building. Each service pipe 
must also be provided with a stop-cock inside the 
building, placed beyond damage by frost, and so 
situated that the water can be conveniently shut 
off, and drained from the pipes, in order to pre- 
vent freezing in cold weather. 

Service Pipes in Building. The main riser, 
from which branch pipes are carried to the various 
fixtures, should start in the basement at or near 
the shutoff cock ; tee outlets being inserted at the 
proper locations under the ceilings of each room 
for connecting the branches to the fixtures on the 
floor above. These branches can also be con- 
nected, leaving their nipples extending through 
the floors at the proper locations for connection 
with the fixtures they are to serve. These nip- 
ples should then be capped over to prevent dirt 
or other foreign matter from getting into the pipe 
before a permanent connection is made io the fix- 
tures. The caps should be screwed on tightly and 
left there until the piping system has been thor- 
oughly tested. 

Testing. After the risers, and branch pipes 
of the water service have been installed, and all 
openings either capped over, or plugged, the sys- 
tem should be thoroughly tested before any con- 
nections to fixtures are made. If the testing is 
done at the proper time, that is before the floors 
are laid, or plastering done, the leaks, if there are 
any can be much more easily discovered, and re- 
paired than they could be if covered by floors or 
plastering. In fact the majority of large cities 



METHOD OF TESTING 179 

and towns at the present day require by law that 
all plumbing in a new building shall remain ex- 
posed until after the job has been tested and 
passed upon by the inspector. 

Methods of Testing. The entire plumbing 
system when roughed in must be tested by the 
plumber in the presence of the inspector of plumb- 
ing if there be such an official, or if there is no 
local inspector, the plumber should test the work 
nevertheless for his own satisfaction. 

Water Test. This test should always be ap- 
plied to new work before the connections are made 
to the fixtures. The water test is to be applied to 
all the soil, waste and vent pipes, as well as to the 
water service pipes. In the case of the soil, waste 
and vent pipes, all openings except those above 
the roof are to be closed by soldering them shut 
on lead pipe, and by plugs, or caps on iron or steel 
pipe. The entire system of piping is then filled 
with water, the filling to be done slowly, and when 
filled, every joint should be carefully examined for 
leaks, and if any are found they should be repaired 
at once. A leak in a caulked joint may often be 
stopped by additional caulking, but if a split pipe, 
or fitting is found, it will be necessary to replace it. 

On some jobs the plasterers may be in a hurry 
io get along with their work, and in such cases the 
soil stacks can be tested in sections, by leaving out 
a length of pipe on each floor, and afterward in- 
serting the same for the final test, care being taken 
to always leave the length of pipe out at some 
point where it will be easily accessible to insert. 



180 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Air Pressure Test. The air pressure test is 
applied by means of a force pump and a mercury 
column equal to ten inches of mercury. All open- 
ings in the system are to be closed with the excep- 
tion of the one to which the force pump is con- 
nected. 

The pump is then operated until the pressure 
of air in the system is sufficient to raise the mer- 
cury column to a height of ten inches. The pump 
is then stopped, and if the column of mercury re- 
mains permanently at that height the test is com- 
plete, but if the mercury column should gradually 
fall, it is an indication of a leak, and this should 
be investigated at once. 

Smoke Test. After the completion of the 
work, and when the fixtures are installed the 
smoke test can be applied, and this is done by clos- 
ing all openings, including those above the roof. 

A device in which a heavy smoke may be gen- 
erated by the burning of oily waste, or rags, is 
then connected to the system which is soon filled 
with the smoke, and if there are any leaks, they 
may easily be detected by the smoke which will 
escape through them. 

Peppermint Test. This test may be applied 
in place of the smoke test, if preferred, at the time 
the job is completed. It is usually applied in test- 
ing alterations, or repair work; in fact it is the 
only test permitted in some localities, after exten- 
sions, or repairs of old systems. The pepper- 
mint test is made by using about five fluid ounces 
of oil of peppermint for each line of pipe up to 



METHOD OF TESTING 181 

five stories and basement in height, and for each 
additional five stories or fraction thereof one ad- 
ditional ounce is to be used. All openings except 
those above the roof are to be closed. The oil of 
peppermint is then poured into the roof opening, 
and immediately after this pour in about one-half 
gallon of hot water for each ounce of peppermint 
oil, after which close the roof opening tightly with 
a plug. The mixture of oil of peppermint and 
water will then flow to every portion of the sys- 
tem of piping, and if there are any leaks the fumes 
of the peppermint will penetrate through them, 
and they can be detected by the odor of the pep- 
permint present. 

Testing the Water Service. After the water 
piping system has been installed, water pressure 
from the street main can be easily applied to the 
entire system of water piping, or it may be tested 
in sections if necessary while being installed, and 
the leaks if there are any will soon make them- 
selves manifest. 

Too much care cannot be exercised in the matter 
of testing all parts of an installation of plumbing 
in a building, for the reason that the health, and 
lives of the occupants of the building are in a 
great measure dependent upon the character of 
the work, and the quality of the materials used. 

Wrought Iron Pipe. Table 7 gives the dimen- 
sions, thickness of metal, threads per inch, and 
other valuable details relative to wrought iron, or 
steel pipe in sizes running from one-eighth inch, 
up to fifteen inches inside diameter. 



182 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Dimensions of Wrought-Iron Pipe. 


Nominal 

Inside 
Diameter. 


Actual 
Outside 
Diameter 
in Inches. 


Actual 

Inside 

Diameter 

in Inches. 


Thickness 
of Metal 
in Inches. 


Threads 
per Inch. 


Length of 

Full 

Thread 

in Inches. 


X 


.405 


.270 


.068 


27 


.19 


X 


.540 


.364 


.085 


18 


.29 


% 


.675 


.493 


.091 


18 


.30 


X 


.840 


.622 


.109 


14 


.39 


% 


1.050 


.824 


.113 


14 


.40 


l 


1.315 


1.048 


.134 


UX 


.51 


IX 


1.660 


1.380 


.140 


HX 


.54 


IX 


1.900 


1.610 


.145 


UX 


.55 


2 


2.375 


2.067 


.154 


11% 


.58 


2X 


2.875 


2.468 


.204 


8 


.89 


8 


3.500 


3.067 


.217 


8 


.95 


3% 


4.000 


8.548 


.226 


8 


1.00 


4 


4.500 


4.026 


.287 


8 


1.05 


*x 


5.000 


4.508 


.246 


8 


1.10 


5 


5.563 


5.045 


.259 


8 


1.16 


6 


6.625 


6.065 


.280 


8 


1.26 


7 


7.625 


7.023 


.301 


8 


1.36 


8 


8.625 


7.981 


.322 


8 


1.46 


9 


9.625 


8.937 


.344 


8 


1.57 


10 


10.750 


10.018 


.366 


8 


1.68 


11 


11.75 


11.000 


.375 


8 


1.78 


12 


12.75 


12.000 


.375 


8 


1.88 


18 


14. 


13.25 


.375 


8 


2.09 


14 


15. 


14.25 


.375 


8 


2.10 


15 


16. 


15.25 


.375 


8 


2.20 



TABLE 7 

Taper of the thread is X inch to one foot. 

Pipe from, X inch to 1 inch inclusive is butt welded and 
tested to 300 pounds per square inch. 

Pipe lX inch and larger is lap welded and tested to 500 
pounds per square inch. 



WROUGHT IRON PIPE 



183 



Table of Quantitity of Water Delivered by Service 


Pipes of Various Sizes Under Various Pressures. 


Proportion of Head of Water (H) to Length of Pipe (L). 


Gallons Per Minute. 


©J 


i-3 
o 


►4 


h4 


►4 


►4 


h4 




k4 


•ga 


rH 


Oi 


CO 


t^ 


CO 


lO 


^ 


CO 


i ° 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


(35 


« 


w 


w 


W 


w 


W 


w 


w 


X 


19.8 


18.7 


17.7 


16.5 


15.3 


14.0 


12.5 


10.8 


% 


34.5 


32.7 


30.1 


28.9 


26.5 


24.4 


21.5 


18.9 


% 


54.4 


51.7 


48.7 


45.6 


42.2 


38.5 


34.4 


29.8 


1 


111.8 


106.0 


100.0 


93.5 


86.6 


79.0 


70.7 


61.2 


lX 


195.2 


185.2 


174.6 


163.3 


151.2 


138.0 


123.4 


106.9 


lX 


308.0 


292.1 


275.4 


257.6 


238.5 


217.7 


194.8 


168.7 


2 


632.2 


599.7 


566.4 


538.9 


488.1 


447.0 


399.8 


346.3 


2X 


1104.0 


1048.0 


987.8 


924.0 


855.4 


780.9 


698.5 


604.9 


3 


1745.0 


1651.0 


1560.0 


1460.0 


1351.0 


1234.0 


1103.0 


955.5 


4 


3581.0 


3397.0 


3203.0 


2996.0 


2774.0 


2532.0 


2265.0 


1962.0 


5 


6247.0 


5928.0 


5588.0 5227.0 


4839.0 


4417.0 3951.0 


3406.0 


6 


9855.0 


9349.0 8814.0|8245.0 


7633.0 6968.0 6233.0 5391.0 


o g 




►4 


h4 


►4 












h4 




T^M 


T*\# 


>i 


h4 


i-5 


►4 


% a 


oq 


rH 


rH 


rH 


rH 


»f* 


n|o* 


i->h* 




II 


II 


II - 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


ss 


w 


w 


w 


w 


w 


ti 


w 


m 


X 


8.8 


8.3 


7.7 


7.0 


6.3 


5.4 


4.4 


3.1 


% 


15.4 


14.4 


13.4 


12.2 


10.9 


9.5 


7.7 


5.5 


% 


24.3 


22.8 


21.1 


19.3 


17.2 


14.9 


12.2 


8.6 


1 


50.0 


46.8 


43.2 


39.5 


35.3 


30.6 


25.0 


17.7 


IX 


87.3 


81.6 


75.6 


69.0 


61.7 


53.5 


43.7 


30.9 


IX 


137.7 


128.8 


119.3 


108.9 


97.4 


84.3 


68.7 


48.7 


2 


282.7 


264.4 


248.8 


223.5 


199.9 


173.1 


141.4 


100.0 


2X 


493.9 


482.0 


427.7 


390.4 


349.2 


302.4 


246.9 


174.6 


3 


780.2 


728.8 


674.8 


615*9 


555.5 


477.1 


390.1 


275.8 


4 


1602.0 


1496.0 


1385.0 


1264.0 


1133.0 


979.3 


800.8 


566.2 


5 


2791.0 


2613.0 


2420.0 


2209.0 


1976.0 


1711.0 


1394.0 


987.7 


6 


4407.0 


4122.0 3817.0 


3484.0 


3116.0 


2693.0 


2204.0 


1558.0 



184 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Table Showing Pressure op Water at Different 
Elevations. 



Feet Head. 


Equals 
Pressure 

per 
Square 
Inch. 


1 


.43 


5 


2.16 


10 


4.33 


15 


6.49 


20 


8.66 


25 


10.82 


30 


12.99 


35 


15.16 


40 


17.32 


45 


19.49 


50 


21.65 


55 


23.82 


60 


25.99 


65 


28.15 


70 


30.32 


75 


32.48 


80 


34.65 


85 


36.82 


90 


38.98 


95 


41.15 


100 


43.31 


105 


45.48 


110 


47.64 


115 


49.81 



120 
125 



51.98 
54.15 



130 
135 
140 
145 
150 
155 
160 
165 
170 
175 
180 
185 
190 
195 
200 
205 
210 
215 
220 
225 
230 
235 
240 
245 
250 



Equals 

Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch. 



56.31 
58.48 
60.64 
62.81 
64.97 
67.14 
69.31 
71.47 
73.64 
75.80 
77.97 
80.14 
82.30 
84.47 
86.63 
88.80 
90.96 
93.14 
95.30 
97.49 
99.63 
101.79 
103.96 
106.13 
108.29 



255 

260 
265 
270 
275 
280 
285 
290 
295 
300 
310 
320 
330 
340 
350 
360 
370 
380 
390 
400 
500 
600 
700 
800 
900 
1000 



Equals 
Pressure 

per 
Square 
Inch. 



110.46 
112.62 
114.79 
116.96 
119.12 
121.29 
123.45 
125.62 
127.78 
129.95 
134.28 
138.62 
142.95 
147.28 
151.61 
155.94 
160.27 
164.61 
168.94 
173.27 
216.58 
259.90 
303.22 
346.54 
389.86 
433.18 



WROUGHT IRON PIPE 



185 





Weight of Copper Pipes Per Foot. 




Thickness of Metal in Parts of an Inch. 


Bore in 
Inches. 


















tV 


% 


3 


X 


5 


% 




pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


% 


0.426 


0.946 


1.561 


2.270 


3.075 


3.973 


% 


0.520 


1.185 


1.845 


2.649 


3.547 


4.540 


% 


0.615 


1.324 


2.129 


3.027 


4.020 


5.108 


% 


0.709 


1.514 


2.412 


3.425 


4.493 


5.676 


1 


0.804 


1.703 


2.696 


3.784 


4.966 


6.243 


lH 


0.993 


2.081 


3.263 


4.540 


5.712 


7.378 


IX 


1.182 


2.459 


3,831 


5.297 


6.857 


8.514 


\% 


1.372 


2.838 


4.388 


6.055 


7.805 


9.646 


2 


1.560 


3.217 


4.967 


6.808 


8.748 


10.783 


2H 


1.750 


3.591 


5.531 


7.566 


9.694 


11.918 


2% 


1.940 


3.975 


6.103 


8.327 


10.643 


13.066 


2% 


2.128 


4.352 


6.668 


9.081 


11.590 


14.190 


3 


2.316 


4.729 


7.238 


9.737 


12.534 


15.325 




Weight of Brass Pipes Per Foot. 




Thickness in Parts of an Inch. 


Bore in 
Inches. 














i 


% 


T^" 


X 


5 3/ 


7 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds pounds 


pounds. 


X 


0.22 


0.53 


0.94 


1.43 


2.01 


2.68 


3.44 


% 


0.40 


0.89 


1.47 


2.15 


2.91 


3.75 


4.70 


% 


0.58 


1.25 


2.01 


2.86 


3.80 


4.83 


5.95 


1 


0.76 


1.61 


2.55 


3.58 


4.70 


5.92 


7.25 


1% 


0.94 


1.96 


3.09 


4.31 


5.64 


6.98 


9.46 


IX 


1.12 


2.34 


3.67 


5.01 


6.49 


8.05 


9.71 


1% 


1.33 


2.66 


4.14 


5.70 


7.36 


9.11 


10.94 


2 


1.48 


3.04 


4.69 


6.44 


8.27 


10.20 


12.21 


2% 


1.65 


3.40 


5.23 


7.16 


?.17 


11.27 


13.46 


2% 


1.83 


3.75 


5.77 


7.87 


10.06 


12.35 


14.72 


2K 


2.01 


4.11 


6.31 


8.59 


10.96 


13.42 


15.97 


3 


2.19 


4.47 


6.84 


9.31 


11.85 


14.69 


17.42 



HOT WATER SUPPLY. 

Cylinder System. In the cylinder system thp 
principal difference from the tank system lies x\ 
the fact that the cylinder or reservoir of hot watet 
lies beneath the draw-off pipes and not above 
them, as with the tank system. This being thf? 
case it is impossible to empty the reservoir un- 
knowingly or accidentally, should the cold water 
supply be shut off. 

Beferring to Fig. 155, the flow-pipe proceeds 
from the extreme top of the waterbaek, and does 
not project through inside the waterbaek in the 
least degree. If it cannot be taken from the top, 
it must be connected to the side or back of the 
waterbaek as close to the top as it can be got, but 
the top connection should always be used if in any 
way possible. From the waterbaek the flow-pipe 
proceeds to the boiler and terminates five-eighths 
of the way up from the bottom. The pipe can 
enter the side of the boiler at the correct point, 
or it can come through lower down and be ex- 
tended up inside with a bend and short piece of 
pipe together without making two holes. 

The return pipe leaves the side of the boiler as 
close to the bottom as possible, or it can come 
from the bottom if desired. It then proceeds to 
186 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



187 



the waterback and enters either through the top 
or the side, terminating half-way down with a 
saddle boiler. Both of these pipes, the flow and 
the return, must have a rise from the waterback 
to the boiler of not less than 1 inch in 10 feet. 



P^r: 



^=? 



F* 



7 



Fig. 155. 



From the top of the boiler is carried the ex- 
pansion pipe. This also should rise 1 inch in 10 
feet from the boiler to its highest point. The 



188 HOT WATER SUPPLY 

highest point can be above the cold-water cistern 
or through the roof. 

The cold water supply to the system is a pipe 
direct from a cistern, as shown. This pipe must 
not be branched for any other purpose. 

It is of the highest importance that the cold 
water supply pipe should be of full size, and not 
choked or reduced in bore anywhere. The out- 
flow at the hot water faucet is exactly in ratio 
with the down-flow of water through this pipe, 
less friction, therefore everything possible must 
be done to give the water full and free passage 
and lessen the friction. This is done by having 
the pipe of good size, using bends and not elbows, 
or lead pipe, and seeing that the stop-cock, if there 
be one, has a straight full way through it. The 
stop-cock should be put near the boiler, so that 
the man who cleans the waterback, or effects re- 
pairs, does not have to traverse the house to shut 
the water off and afterwards to turn it on. A tee 
should be put on the cold water supply connec- 
tion, inside the boiler to spread the inflowing cold 
water over the bottom of the boiler. If this is not 
done the inflowing cold water will bore its way 
up through the hot water above, unless the pres- 
sure be quite low. 

An emptying cock should be put somewhere be- 
neath the boiler, but this cock must be provided 
with a loose key, so that only an authorised per- 
son can withdraw the water from the boiler. 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 189 

The draw-off pipes are all taken from the 
expansion pipe as shown. This pipe should there- 
fore be carried up by the best route to touch at 
the points where the faucets are, otherwise long 
single branches must be run. The expansion pipe, 
being a single tube, has no active or useful circu- 
lation in it. 

It must never be forgotten that, on opening a 
faucet, on a secondary circulation, water will pro- 
ceed from both directions to reach that faucet. 
The circulatory movements all cease, and quite a 
new action takes place. Water will come up from 
the top of the boiler and this will be hot. There 
will also be water coming up the secondary re- 
turn, and the temperature of this will depend on 
whence it comes. If connected as shown in Fig. 
156 then whatever water comes to the faucets will 
be hot, all there is of it, and when the temperature 
of the issuing water falls it may be known that 
the hottest has all been withdrawn. There have 
been several points at which the secondary re- 
turn has been connected with bad results, notably 
at the bottom of the boiler, into the primary re- 
turn (between the boiler and waterback), into the 
boiler, and even into the cold supply pipe just be- 
neath the boiler. These are wrong, and only 
one position is correct, as shown in Fig. 156. The 
point is from 3 inches to 6 inches from the top of 
the boiler according to its size. The latter would 



190 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



be for a 100-gallon boiler. A 50-gallon size would 
have the connection 4 inches from the top. 

Tank System. The usual arrangement of this 
system of water heating apparatus is illustrated 



fa 



7 



-&. 



TV 



^ 



_ZL 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



191 



in Fig. 157. The flow pipe should proceed from 
the extreme top or highest point of the water- 
back, preferably from the top plate, and not pro- 
ject through to the inside of the waterback in 
the least degree. If it is impossible to connect 




STig. 157 



the flow pipe in the top plate of the waterback 
it should be located in the side or back, but as 
close to the top as possible. From the waterback 
the flow pipe should proceed to the tank and ter- 



192 HOT WATER SUPPLY 

inmate in it about three-fourths of the way up, 
that is one-quarter of the height of the tank from 
the top. It may pass through the bottom and 
reach up inside as a stand pipe as shown in Fig. 
157, or it may enter the side at the required 
height. 

The return pipe should leave the bottom of the 
tank, being connected directly in the bottom or 
in the side of the tank near the bottom. It should 
never be more than an inch from the bottom. 
From the tank the return pipe should proceed 
directly to the waterback, and if entering the 
boiler through the top, should extend down- 
wards, three-fourths the height of the waterback. 

The draw-off pipes, are taken from the flow pipe 
as shown. It therefore follows that the flow pipe 
should be carried in a direction which will bring 
it as near to all the faucets as possible. Instead 
of this, the most common practice appears to be 
to carry the circulating pipes by the most direct 
route from the waterback to the tank, and to con- 
sider the running of the branch pipes afterwards. 
There is no objection to the return pipe taking 
the shortest route, but the flow should be diverted 
to pass the work as near as possible. Failing this, 
there would have to be long single-pipe branches, 
and the fault of these is that so much cold water 
has to be drawn before the hot issues. This is not 
so much a fault at a bath, at which some cold 
water will probably be needed. At a lavatory 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



193 



basin, however, the fault is very pronounced, the 
faucets being small and slow-running, and at no 
point is the quick arrival of warm water appre- 
ciated more than at this one. 



P© 



M4 




T3 



Cylinder-Tank System. This is simply a com- 
bination of the two systems previously described. 



194 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



The tank system and the cylinder system both 
have good features which are retained in the cyl- 
inder-tank system, and also certain bad features 
which are eliminated in the combination system 









^-_ — 






J 






- 





w 



^ 



Fig. 159. 



which may be here described briefly, the tank sys- 
tem ensures a good flow of water from the high 
faucets, while the cylinder system commonly has 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 195 

a very unsatisfactory issue of water from any fau- 
cets that are near the top of the house. On the 
other hand, the cylinder system is safest where 
the cold water supply is at all uncertain, as the 
cylinder— the reservoir of the apparatus— cannot 
be emptied. The object of the cylinder-tank sys- 
tem is therefore to ensure a good outflow at all 
taps by having a store of hot water above them, 
and to have a store of water which cannot be 
exhausted unknowingly if the cold water supply 
fails. 

Fig. 158 illustrates this system of apparatus in 
outline, and the parts need no* general description 
more than that given already. As to the sizes of 
the tank and cylinder, the best practice for gen- 
eral requirements is to make them of equal capa- 
city, and the two together should be no larger 
than one would be if alone. Thus, if a 50-gallon 
boiler would be the suitable size for a job erected 
on the ordinary cylinder system, then with the 
combined apparatus the boiler should be 25 gal- 
lons and the tank 25. In the cylinder-tank sys- 
tem illustrated in Fig. 158, the cold water supply 
is delivered into the tank directly from the cis- 
tern, while in the system shown in Fig. 159, the 
cold water supply is carried down to the cylinder. 



196 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Weight and Thickness of Sheet Lead. 


Weight in Lbs. 
per Sup. Foot. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 


Weight in Lbs. 
per Sup. Foot. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 


1 


0.017 


7 


0.118 


2 


0.034 


8 


0.135 


3 


0.051 


9 


0.152 


4 


0.068 


10 


0.169 


5 


0.085 


11 


0.186 


6 


0.101 


12 


0.203 



TABLE 11 



HOT WATER PLUMBING. 

As the drawings shown in the article on Hot 
Water Supply are merely diagramatic outlines of 
the different systems and are only intended to il- 
lustrate the principle of the circulation, which is 
involved in the heating of water for domestic use, 
further description and additional drawings are 
here given to illustrate the two systems of water 
heating in common use, viz. : the pressure-cylinder 
system and the gravity-supply tank and cylinder 
system. 

In Fig. 160 is shown one of the simplest ar- 
rangements of the pressure-cylinder system for 
the successful heating of water for household use. 
The boiler, water-back and pipe connections are 
all plainly shown. Tn the boiler is a pipe extend- 
ing down from the top and connected with the 
cold water supply, which it discharges in the 
boiler a short distance from the bottom. The dis- 
tance down in the boiler which this pipe should 
extend depends upon the height that the pipe 
from the upper part of the water-back enters the 
boiler. The cold water supply should always en- 
ter the boiler at a considerable distance below 
the point of entrance of the pipe conveying the 
hot water from the water-back to the boiler. 
197 



198 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



The greater the distance that the hot and cold 
water pipes are apart in the boiler, the better will 
be the circulation and the less time it will take 
to heat a given amount of water. 



T 



3ST 



a 



/ 


J*= 


t~ 


3L 












!! 

n 
11 
ii 












ii 
ii 
ti 
ii 
n 

LJ 










T 


I 1 






'1 

1 






1 


W H 


1 ,1 


I 






^ 


^ — 1- 

k ■ 






r 


J 


=* ' i 


^ 


\ 


* 



Fig. 160 



The piping in the arrangement shown in Fig. 
160 is designed to deliver hot water on the floor 
above that on which the boiler is located. If hot 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 199 



| n 

H 



j 



JL_£L 

FT 



\ — ^^ 



]n 



1 



3 



V 



Pig. 161 



200 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

water is desired on the same floor a connection 
can be made in the pipe leading from the top of 
the boiler to the faucet on the floor above. 

Fig. 161 shows an arrangement of fixtures and 
piping to supply hot water on three floors by the 
pressure-cylinder system. Hot water is supplied to 
the kitchen sink on the ground floor, to a bath 
tub and wash bowl on the second floor and to a 
wash bowl on the third floor. The cold water 
supply pipe to the boiler is shown and the cold 
water connection to the kitchen sink, while the 
cold water pipes to the bath tub and wash bowls 
on the upper floors are omitted for the sake of 
simplicity. 

Fig. 162 shows one of the simplest forms of the 
gravity- supply tank and cylinder systems, in 
which the boiler, water-back and hot water con- 
nections are all on the same floor. The cold water 
pipe goes to the floor above or to the attic as the 
case may be to the supply tank, where the supply 
of water is regulated by a ball float cock. An 
expansion pipe as shown should be provided in 
the hot water pipe leading from the boiler and ar- 
ranged to discharge into the supply tank. In Fig. 
163 a gravity- supply tank and cylinder system is 
shown, which is arranged to deliver hot water to 
the kitchen sink and also to a bath tub and wash 
bowl on the floor above. The cold water pipe is 
shown running up to the supply tank and also to 
the kitchen sink. For the sake of clearness and 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



201 



to avoid confusion the cold water pipes leading 
to the wash bowl and bath tub are omitted. 

It must be remembered that the kitchen boiler 
is not a heater, it is simply a reservoir to keep a 




supply of hot water on hand so that it may be 
drawn when required. By this arrangement hot 
water may be had long after the fire has been ex- 



202 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



tinguished in the stove, as it stores itself by the 
law of gravitation at the upper part of the boiler, 
and is forced out by cold water entering below 
and remaining there without mingling with ox 




Pig. 163 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 203 

cooling the hot water in the upper part of the 
boiler. It should be understood that the natural 
course of hot water, when confined in a boiler and 
depending for its motion on the difference be- 
tween its temperature and the temperature of oth- 
er water in the same boiler, is in a perpendicular 
or vertical direction. And consequently when 
the heating apparatus or pipes which have to 
convey the hot water from the water back to a 
boiler in which the hot water is to be stored in 
any position other than in a vertical position, 
friction is added which retards the flow of hot 
water just in proportion to the degree of angle 
from the vertical of the hot water pipes. 

A noise in the pipes and water-back, and also 
a rumbling noise in the boiler indicates that 
there is something wrong, and which requires, 
attention. These noises are produced by differ- 
ent causes, sometimes on account of the way the 
upper pipe from the water-back in the stove is 
connected to the boiler. 

This pipe should always have some elevation 
from the water-back to where it enters the boiler. 
The more elevation the better the water will cir- 
culate. But the slightest rise in this pipe will 
make a satisfactory job. It should be a continu- 
ous rise if possible, the entire length from the 
water-back to the boiler. 

Another cause of this noise comes from the 
•water-back being filled, or nearly so, with scale, 



204 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

which partly stops the water from circulating. 
Nearly all the troubles of this kind come from 
a bad circulation of water between the stove 
and boiler. If the trouble is allowed to continue 
very long without doing anything to improve it, 
it will grow worse, and perhaps stop up entirely. 
With the connections between the water-back in 
the stove and the boiler stopped up, what is to 
be expected? With a good fire in the stove un- 
der these conditions, an explosion of the water- 
back, which may blow the stove to pieces and, 
perhaps, kill some of the occupants of the house. 

There are two conditions of things that will 
cause the water-back in a stove to explode. First, 
to have water in the water-back with its outlets 
or pipe connections stopped up, then have a fire 
started in the stove. The fire will generate steam 
in the water-back, and, having no outlet through 
which the steam might escape, an explosion must 
take place. The second way through which the 
water-back could explode is to have no water 
in the kitchen boiler, with a good fire in the 
stove and the water-back red-hot, then allow the 
water to be turned on suddenly into the boiler 
and water-back. Under these conditions steam 
would be generated faster than it could escape 
through the small pipe connections, and would 
naturally result in an explosion. 

The different ways of connecting a water-back 
on any water heating device to an ordinary 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



205 



kitchen boiler, are governed, to some extent, by 
the conditions in each individual case. 



Hot water y 
Outlej. 




Fig. 164 



In connecting a gas-heated water device, the 
connections should be made as shown in Fig. 



206 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



164, which is known as a top connection, the 
particular reason being that it is possible, with 
a connoction of this kind, to heat small quanti- 




Fig. 165 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



207 



ties of water and to heat it quickly, and water 
can be drawn within five minutes after lighting 
the gas the great advantage being the economy of 
fuel and time. A gas-heated water device should 
always be connected to a flue. 




Fig. 166 



When connecting a kitchen boiler to a water- 
feack in a range, the connection should be made 
as shown in Fig. 165. As the range fire will 



208 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



probably be kept burning all day, the question of 
fuel economy is not to be considered — the ad- 
vantage of a connection of this kind is that it 
gives a large body of water from which to draw 
at all times. 




Connections to vertical and horizontal boilers, 
when connected to independent water heaters 
are shown in Figs. 166 and 167. 

Another device recently put on the market and 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



209 




Pig. 168 




210 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

shown in Fig. 168, is a combination reservoir and 
heater. This heater is unique in construction of 
water compartments inasmuch as all surfaces 
are exposed very advantageously to the flame. 
The central water compartment being directly 
over the flame and the pipe which carries hot 
water to the top of the tank enables it to supply 
hot water within a very short time. The gas 
supply is regulated by a thermostat, which auto- 
matically decreases the flow of gas when water 
is heated and automatically increases the flow of 
gas as soon as the hot water is drawn from the 
tank. Two clusters of blue flame gas burners, 
which are independent of each other, and can be 
used separately or both at the same time, fur- 
nish the heating medium. The advantage of 
this boiler, outside of the economy of fuel con- 
sumption, is that it requires little space for the 
installation and a great saving in the piping. 
Again the automatic gas regulating feature pre- 
vents the boiler from becoming over-heated and 
from its subsequent dangers, as the temperature 
of water is maintained at about 170 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

In the sectional cut a steam coil is shown 
whereby the water can be heated with steam, in 
case it is installed, where steam is available. 

Plumber's Tools. The illustrations given in 
Figs. 169, 170 and 171, show a set of plumber's 
tools. The name of the tool is given with each 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 211 



~\ 



Copper Hatchet Bolt 



Copper Pointed Bolt- 



4» * 





Wiping Cloths 




Tack Mould 



Tool Bags 



9 





Fig. 169 



212 HOT WATER PLUMBING 




Compass Saw 
■ ant sfi^V 



Rasp 



Basin Wrench 



9^=f 



Calking Chisel 



Offset Calking Chisel. 

l"l 



Yarning Chisel 



Pig. 170 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



213 



illustration, making further information unneces- 
sary. 
A larger number of tools than those shown 



Bossing Stick 



Side Edge 



Chipping Knives 



Tap Borer 




Washer Cutter 




Turn |Pin 



Drift Plug 



Fig. 171 



will sometimes be necessary for special work, 
or work that has to be done under difficulties. 

Figs. 172 and 173 show two styles of plumber's 
blow-torches, and Figs. 174 and 175, two solder 



214 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



pots. The air pressure is generated by means 
of rubber bulb in the solder pot shown in Fig. 
174, and by means of a small hand pump in the 
one shown in Fig. 175. 




Fig. 172 

A rubber force cup for cleaning bathtubs, 
washbowls and sinks is shown in Fig. 176. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



215 




Fig. 173 



Fig. 174 





Fig. 175 



Fig. 176 



216 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



A thawing steamer for thawing pipes that 
have been frozen during a cold spell is illus- 
trated in Fig. 177. 




Fig. 177 



HOT AVATER PLUMBING 217 

Traps. A trap is a vessel which contains 
water, its purpose is to prevent the passage of 
sewer gas and other foul odors from the sewer 
into the house, or to prevent the entrance 
through the house fixtures of gas and noxious 
odors that may be formed between the main 
trap and the house fixtures. The water seal of 
a trap should not be less than iy 2 to 2 inches. 

The seal of a trap may be broken in different 
ways, viz : by syphonage, evaporation, back pres- 
surage and momentum or the action of the waste 
itself as it may pass off with considerable force. 

A good trap should have a good seal, it 
should be non-syphonable, self -cleaning and have 
as few corners or places where dirt or refuse may 
collect as possible. 

The S-trap and the drum or cylinder trap are 
two forms most used. 

The back pressure or gas from the sewer will 
saturate the water in a trap with sewer gas, 
therefore all traps should be back-vented from 
the sewer side of the syphon and at the highest 
point of the same. 

Traps should always be counter-vented, prin- 
cipally to prevent syphonage, to ventilate the 
plumbing system and to relieve back pressure. 

Counter-venting. A counter-vent is a pipe by 
means of which a trap is supplied with air, to 
prevent the partial or total syphonage of the trap 
and also ventilate the plumbing system of the 
house. 



218 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Counter-vents from fixture traps should always 
be carried into the main air-pipe and higher than 
the top of the fixture or else directly through the 
roof. 

The counter-vent from a water closet should 
always be vented from the highest point of the 
syphon and never from a lower point where the 
flushing action of the closet would throw waste 
matter into the entrance of the counter-vent or 
at any point where the waste would be liable to 
settle in the vent-pipe. 

Caulking Joints. A ring of oakum is first 
forced into the joint, and then set with a caulking 
tool until hard. After the oakum is firmly caulked, 
an asbestos rope is placed around the top of the 
joint, leaving a small opening at the top for pour- 
ing the melted lead. The melted lead is then 
poured, and after cooling, firmly set down with 
the caulking tool, care being taken to thoroughly 
caulk the inner and outer edges of the lead circle. 
The lead in a 4-inch soil pipe should be about 1 
inch deep. 



PROPERTIES OF WATER. 

A tasteless, transparent, inodorous, liquid, 
almost incompressible, its absolute diminution be- 
ing about one twenty-thousandth of its bulk, pos- 
sesses the liquid form only, at temperatures be- 
tween thirty-two degrees and two hundred and 
twelve Fahrenheit. Chemically considered, it is 
a. compound substance of hydrogen and oxygen, 
two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxy- 
gen. Water is the most powerful and universal 
solvent known. 

The gallon is the unit of measure for water. 
The unit of water pressure is the pound per 
square inch, one gallon of water measures .134 
cubic feet and contains 231 cubic inches and 
weighs about eight and one-third pounds, or sixty- 
two and one-third pounds per cubic foot, 

The above is figured at sixty-two degrees 
Fahrenheit, which is taken as a standard temper- 
ature. 

The weight of a column of water of one inch 
area and twelve inches high, at sixty-two degrees 
Fahrenheit is .433 pounds, or 

.433x144=62.35 pounds per cubic foot. 

The pressure of still water, in pounds, per 
square inch, against the side of any pipe or ves- 
219 



220 PROPERTIES OF WATER 

sel, of any shape whatever, is equal in all direc- 
tions, downwards, upwards or sideways. To find 
the pressure in pounds, per square inch, of a col- 
umn of water, multiply the height of the column 
in feet, by .433, approximately one foot of eleva- 
tion, is equal to one half-pound pressure per 
square inch. 

The head is the vertical distance between the 
level surface of still water and the height in the 
pipe, unless caused by pressure such as by a 
pump, etc. Water pressure is measured in 
pounds per square inch, above atmospheric press- 
ure, by means of a pressure gauge. To ascertain 
the height water will rise, at any given pressure, 
divide the gauge pressure by .433; the result is 
the height in feet. 

Example: The pressure gauge on a supply 
pipe in a basement shows 25 pounds pressure. 
To what height will water rise in the piping 
throughout the building? 

Answer: 25^.433=57V 2 feet. 

While water will rise to this height, sufficient 
head should be provided to furnish a surplus head 
of about ten feet above the highest point of de- 
livery, to insure a respectable velocity of dis- 
charge. 

It is frequently desired to know what number 
of pipes of a given size is equal in carrying ca- 
pacity to one pipe of a larger size. At the same 



PROPERTIES OF WATER 221 

velocity of flow, the volume delivered by two 
pipes of a different size is proportionate to the 
square of their diameters, thus: A four- inch pipe 
will deliver the same volume as four two-inch 
pipes. 

Example: 

2 inchesX2 inches= 4 square inches. 
4 inches X 4 inches=16 square inches. 
16 inches-f-4 inches= 4 2-inch pipes. 

With the same head, however, the velocity be- 
ing less in a two-inch pipe, the volume delivered 
varies about as the square root of the fifth power. 
Thus one four-inch pipe is actually equal to 5.7 
two-inch pipes. 

Example: With the same head, how many 
two-inch pipes, will it take to equal one four-inch 
pipe? 

Solution : 
2 5 =2X2X2X2X2 = 32 and the i/32 = 5.7 nearly. 

In other words, the decrease in loss by friction 
in the four-inch pipe, in comparison with the two- 
inch pipes, is equal to 1.7 two-inch pipes over the 
actual square of their respective areas. 

Water boils or takes the form of vapor or steam 
at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, at a mean pressure of 
the sea level, or 14.696 pounds per square inch. 
Water freezes, or assumes a solid form, that of 
ice, at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, at the ordinary at- 



222 PROPERTIES OF WATER 

mospheric pressure, and ice melts at the same 
temperature. The point of maximum density is 
reached at 39.2 Fahrenheit, that is, water at that 
temperature occupies its smallest possible volume, 
If cooled further, it expands until it solidifies, and 
if heated, it expands. 

Hardness of water is indicated by the easy man- 
ner with which it will form a lather with soap, 
the degree of hardness being based on the pres- 
ence and amount of lime and magnesia. The more 
lime and magnesia in a sample of water, the more 
soap a given volume of water will decompose. 
The standard soap measurement is the quantity 
required to precipitate or neutralize one grain 
of carbonate of lime. It is commonly recommended 
that one gallon of pure, distilled water takes one 
soap measure to produce a lather, and, therefore, 
one is deducted from the total amount of soap 
measurements found to be necessary to produce a 
lather in a gallon of water, and in reporting the 
number of soap measurements or degrees of hard- 
ness of the water sample. 

The impurities which occur in waters are of two 
kinds, mechanical and physical, dirt, leaves, in- 
sects, etc., are mechanical and can be removed 
by filtration. It is said that these impurities are 
held in suspension. 

Solutions of minerals, poisons and the like are 
physical and are designated as those held in solu- 
tion. 



PROPERTIES OF WATER 223 

Freshening water to render it palatable is ac- 
compli shed by aeration, that is, by exposing water 
to the action of the air, by passing air through it 
or raising it to an elevation built for that purpose, 
protected from dust and other impurities of the 
air, if the water is to be used for drinking pur- 
poses, and allowing it to run down an incline, 
which is slatted or barred, so as to break it up 
into small particles, and allow it to become sat- 
urated with air. 

This process, however, is of no practical use 
for actual purification. 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 

One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs 
from 75 to^80 lbs. 

Qne heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs 
from 70 to 75 lbs. 

One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. 

Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on 
the inside. 

One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- 
pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. 

A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit 
raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- 
gree Fahrenheit. . 

For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour is considered economical 
consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- 
face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. 

A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 
square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is 
also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface 
in a standard tubular boiler. 

Water boils in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62% pounds, it 
contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 
expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk, 
224 



USEFUL INFORMATION 225 

In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its 
bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will 
produce 1 cubic foot of steam. 

One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. 

It requires l 1 /^ British Thermal Units to raise 
one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

At atmospheric pressure 966 heat units are re- 
quired to evaporate one pound of water into 
steam. 

A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat 
units. 

One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units 
per minute. 

One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 
pounds one foot high in one minute. 

To produce one horsepower requires the evapo- 
ration of 2.66 pounds of water. 

One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 
cubic feet. 

One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 
pounds. 

Heated air and water rise because their parti- 
cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than 
the colder particles. 

A vacuum is a portion of space from which the 
air has been entirely exhausted. 

Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into 
the form of vapor. 

Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 



226 USEFUL INFORMATION 

surface, and the passage of air currents over the 
surface, cause increased evaporation. 

Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the 
liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. 

Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted 
undiminished in all directions, and acts with the 
same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to 
those surfaces. 

The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- 
tional to its depth. 

With different liquids and the same depth, pres- 
sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. 

The pressure is the same at all points on any 
given level of a liquid. 

The pressure of the upper layers of a body of 
liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- 
ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is 
called buoyancy. 

Friction does not depend in the least on the 
pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which 
it is flowing. 

Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- 
face. 

At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- 
locity of the liquid. 

Friction increases with the roughness of th^ 
surface. 

Friction increases with the density of the liquid. 

Friction is greater comparatively, in small 
pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes 



USEFUL INFORMATION 227 

in contact with the sides of the pipe than in the 
case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on 
heating* apparatus should be generous in size. 

Air is extremely compressible, while water is 
almost incompressible. 

Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, 
and one part of oxygen. 

Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- 
tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water 
is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- 
est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. 

Air is composed of about one-fifth oxygen and 
four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- 
bonic acid gas. 

To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- 
heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide 
the result by 5, and add 32. 

To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- 
grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, 
multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 

To find the area of a required pipe, when the 
volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- 
tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and 
divide this amount by the velocity in feet per 
minute. 

Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric 
pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 



228 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Water expands about one-tenth its bulk by 
freezing solid. 

Rule for finding the size of a pipe necessary 
to fill a number of smaller pipes. Suppose it is 
desired to fill from one pipe, a 2, 2%. -and 4- 
inch pipe. Draw a right angle, one arm 2 inches 
in length, the other 2% inches in length. From 
the extreme ends of the two arms draw a line. 
The length of this line in inches will give the 
size of pipe necessary to fill the two smaller 
pipes— about 3% inches. From one end of this 
last line, draw another line at right angles to it, 
4 inches in length. Now, from the end of the 
2-inch line to the end of the last, line draw an- 
other line. Its length will represent the size of 
pipe necessary to fill a 2-, 2%- and 4-inch pipe. 
This may be continued as long as desired. 

Discharge of water. The amount of water dis- 
charged through a given orifice during a given 
length of time and under different heads, is as 
the square roots of the corresponding heights of 
the water in the reservoir above the surface of 
the orifice. 

Water is at its greatest density and occupies the 
least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- 
sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- 
mitting heat. 

A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 culric inches 
and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 229 

A column of water 27.67 inches high has a pres- 
sure of 1 pound to the square inch at the bottom. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. 

- A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, 
the difference depending upon conditions of draft, 
fuel, system and management. 

A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 50 
pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 
40 pounds. 

Weights. 

One cubic inch of water 

weighs . 036 pounds 

One U. S. gallon weighs... 8.33 " 
One Imperial gallon ' i ... 10 . 00 " 

One U. S. gallon equals 231.00 cubic inches 

One Imperial gallon " ...277.274 " ." 
One cubic foot of water 

equals 7.48 XL F. gallons 

Liquid Measure. 

4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 

2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel 

To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the 
length by the breadth. 

To find the area of triangle, multiply the base 
by one-half the perpendicular height. 



230 USEFUL INFORMATION 

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, multiply the diam- 
eter by itself, and the result by .7854. 

To find the diameter of a circle of a given area, 
divide the area by .7854, and find the square root 
of the result. 

To find the diameter of a circle which shall have 
the same area as a given square, multiply one side 
of the square by 1.128. 

To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical 
tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, 
this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. 
To find the number of gallons in a rectangular 
tank, multiply together the length, breadth and 
height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- 
mensions are in inches, multiply the product by 
.004329. To find the pressure in pounds per 
square inch, of a column of water, multiply the 
height of the column in feet by .434. 

To find the head which will produce a given 
velocity of water through a pipe of a given di- 
ameter and length: Multiply the square of the 
velocity, expressed in feet per second, by the 
length of pipe multiplied by the quotient ob- 
tained by dividing 13.9 by the diameter of the 
pipe in inches, and divide the result obtained by 
2,500. The final amount will give the head in 
feet. 

Example.— The horizontal length of pipe is 



USEFUL INFORMATION 231 

1,200 feet, and the diameter is 4 inches. What 
head must be secured to produce a flow of 3 
feet per second? 

3X3=9; 13.9h-4=3.475, 
9X1,200X3.475=37,530. 
37,530^-2,500=15 ft. 

To find the velocity of water flowing through 
a horizontal straight pipe of given length and 
diameter, the head of water above the center of 
the pipe being known ^ Multiply "' the head in 
feet by 2,500, and divide the result by the length 
of pipe in feet multiplied by 13.9, divided by 
the inner diameter of the pipe in inches. The 
square root of the quotient gives the velocity 
in feet per second. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
2.31. 

To find the contents of a barrel. To twice the 
square of the largest diameter, add the square of 
the smallest diameter and multiply this by the 
height, and the result by 2,618. This will give 
the cubic inches in the barrel, and this divided 
by 231 will give the number of gallons. 

In the absence of any pressure, as in a perfect 
vacuum, water boils at 32 degrees F. tempera- 
ture. 

To find the lateral pressure of water upon the 
side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 



232 USEFUL INFORMATION 

submerged side, by the pressure due to one-half 
the depth. 

Example— Suppose a tank to be 12 feet long and 
12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the 
tank. 

144 x 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 

12 x .43=5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- 
sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure 
will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 
pounds pressure on side of tank. 

To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe 
of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- 
ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. 

To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- 
en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- 
tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per 
minute by 96. This will give the diameter in 
inches. 

To find the weight of any length of lead pipe, 
when the diameter and thickness of the lead are 
known: Multiply the square of the outer diam- 
eter in inches, by the weight of 12 cylindrical 
inches, then multiply the square of the inner 
diameter in inches by the same amount, sub- 
tracting the product of the latter from that of 
the former. The remainder multiplied by the 
length gives the desired result. 

Example. Find the weight of 1,200 feet of 
lead pipe, the outer diameter being % inch, and 
the inner diameter 9-16 inch. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 233 

The weight of 12 cylindrical inches, 1 foot 
long, 1 inch in diameter, is 3.8697 lbs. 

7 /s X %=49-64=.765625. 

9-16x9-16=81-256=.316406. 

.765625 - .316406=.449219 X 3.8697 X 1,200=2,086 
lbs. 

Cleaning Rusted Iron. Place the articles to be 
cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin 
and allow them to stand for a half day or more. 

"When removed, wash the articles in water, then 
in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. 

Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- 
complish this purpose, often better than specially 
prepared compounds. 

Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of 
nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip 
the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with 
water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 
work into a strong mixture of potash, soda, and 
water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with 
water. 

Removing Grease Stains from Marble. Mix 1% 
parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 
1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the 
grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to 
stand a few hours. 

Strong Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal 
parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- 
plv the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of 
strong cotton clotn. 



234 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine 
iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- 
half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. 
Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- 

ly. 

Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red 
or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- 
ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. 

Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- 
dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half 
part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply 
quickly as possible. 

To keep plaster of Paris from setting too 
quickly. Sift the plaster into the water, allow- 
ing it to soak up the water without stirring, 
which would admit the air, and cause the plaster 
to set very quickly. If it is desired to keep the 
plaster soft for a much longer period, as is nec- 
essary for some kinds of work, add to every 
quart of water one-half teaspoonful of common 
cooking soda. This will gain all the time that is 
needed. 

To keep paste from spoiling. Add a few drops 
of oil of clove. 

To make a cement that will hold when all 
others fail. Melt over a slow fire equal parts of 
rubber and pitch. 'When wishing to use it, 
melt and spread it on a strip of strong cotton 
cloth. 

Bath for cleaning sheet copper that is to be 



USEFUL INFORMATION 235 

tinned. Pour into water sulphuric acid, until 
the temperature rises to about blood heat, when 
it will be about right for pickling purposes. 

Making Tight Steam Joints. With white lead 
ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, 
with a small amount of litharge. Dust the board 
with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a 
small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled 
with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into 
place. 

Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth 
with weak salt water. 

Rust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- 
ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- 
phur, and thin the mixture with water. 

To tin sheet copper after it has been well 
cleaned. Take it from the bath. If there are 
any spots which the acid has failed to remove, 
scour with salt and sand. Then over a light 
charcoal fire heat it, touching it with tin or sol- 
der, and wipe from one end of the sheet to the 
other with a handful of flax, only going so fast 
as it is thoroughly tinned. If the tinning shows 
a yellowish color, it shows there is too much 
heat, which is the greatest danger, as tinning 
should be done with as little heat as is neces- 
sary to make the metal flow. When this is dene, 
rinse off in clean water and dry in sawdust. 

To give copper a red appearance as seen on 
bath boilers. After the copper has been cleaned, 



236 USEFUL INFORMATION 

rub on red chalk and hammer it in with a plan- 
ishing hammer. 

To tin soldering copper with sal-ammoniac. 
It will be found very handy to have a stick of 
sal-ammoniac in the kit for tinning purposes. 
After filing the heated copper bright, touch the 
copper with the sal-ammoniac and afterward 
with a stick of solder. The solder will at once 
flow over the entire surface. In this there is but 
one danger, the too great heating of the copper, 
in which case the burned sal-ammoniac will form 
a hard crust over the surface. Tin with as little 
heat as possible. Sal-ammoniac will be found of 
great value in keeping the soldering copper in 
shape by frequently rubbing the tinned point 
with it. 

To Keep Soldering Coppers in Order While 
Soldering with Acid. In a pint of water dis- 
solve a piece of sal-ammoniac about the size of 
a walnut. Whenever the copper is taken from 
the fire, dip the point into the liquid, and the 
zinc taken from the acid will run to the point of 
the copper and can then be shaken off, leaving 
the copper bright. 

TESTS FOR PURE WATER. 

Color. Fill a long clean bottle of colorless 
glass with the water. Look through it at some 
blank object. It should look colorless and free 



USEFUL INFORMATION 237 

from suspended matter. A muddy or turbid 
appearance indicates soluble organic matter or 
solid matter in suspension. 

Odor. Fill the bottle half full, cork it and 
leave it in a warm place for a few hours. If, 
when uncorked, it has a smell the least repul- 
sive, it should be rejected for domestic use. 

Taste. If water at any time, even after heat- 
ing, has a repulsive or disagreeable taste, it 
should be rejected. A simple, semi-chemical 
test is to fill a clean pint bottle three-fourths full 
of water, add a half teaspoonful of clean granu- 
lated or crushed 'oaf sugar, stop the bottle with 
glass or a clean cork, and let it stand in the 
light, in a moderately warm room, for forty- 
eight hours. If the water becomes cloudy, or 
milky, it is unfit for domestic use. 



'238 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Diameters, Circumferences, 


Areas, Squares, 






AND 


Cubes. 






Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


% 


.3927 


.0122 




.0156 


.00195 


% 


.7854 


.0490 




.0625 


.01563 


% 


1.1781 


.1104 




.1406 


.05273 


X 


1.5708 


1963 




.25 


.125 


% 


1.9635 


.3068 




.3906 


.24414 


% 


2.3562 


.4417 




.5625 


.42138 


% 


2.7489 


.6013 




.7656 


.66992 


1 


3.1416 


.7854 




1. 


1. 


1% 


3.5343 


• .9940 


.0069 


1.2656 


1.42383 


IX 


3.9270 


1.2271 


.0084 


1.5625 


1.95313 


1% 


4.3197 


1.4848 


.0102 


1.8906 


2.59961 


IX 


4.7124 


1.7671 


.0122 


2.25 


3.375 


1% 


5.1051 


2.0739 


.0143 


2.6406 


4.291 


1% 


5.4978 


2.4052 


.0166 


3.0265 


5.3593 


V/s • 


5.8905 


2.7611 


.0191 


3.5156 


6.5918 


2 


6.2832 


3.1416 


.0225 


4. 


8. 


2% 


6.6759 


3.5465 


.0245 


4.5156 


9.5957 


2% 


7.0686 


3.9760 


.0275 


5.0625 


11.3906 


2% 


7.4613 


4.4302 


.0307 


5.6406 


13.3965 


2X 


7.8540 


4.9087 


.0340 


6.25 


15.625 


2% 


8.2467 


5.4119 


.0375 


6.8906 


18.0879 


2% 


8.6394 


5.9395 


.0411 


7.5625 


20.7969 


2% 


9.0321 


6.4918 


.0450 


8.2656 


23.7637 


3 


9.4248 


7.0686 


.0490 


9. 


27. 


3% 


9.8175 


7.6699 


.0531 


9.7656 


30.5176 


3M 


10.210 


. 8.2957 


.0575 


10.5625 


34.3281 


3% 


10.602 


8.9462 


.0620 


11.3906 


38.4434 


3% 


10.995 


9.6211 


.0668 


12.25 


42.875 


3% 


11.388 


10.320 


.0730 


13.1406 


47.634 


3% 


11.781 


11.044 


.0767 


14.0625 


52.734 


3% 


12.173 


11.793 


.0818 


15.0156 


58.185 


4 


12.566 


12.566 


.0879 


16. 


64. 



TABLE 12 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



239 



Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 






AND 


Cubes. 






Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 

Square 

Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


4% 


12.959 


13.364 


.0935 


17.0156 


70.1895 


4K 


13.351 


14.186 


.0993 


18.0625 


76.7656 


4% 


13.744 


15.033 


.1052 


19.1406 


83.7402 


4X 


14.137 


15.904 


.1113 


20.25 


91.125 


4% 


14.529 


16.800 


.1176 


21.3906 


98.9316 ' 


4% 


14.922 


17.720 


.1240 


22.5625 


107.1719 


4% 


15.315 


18.665 


.1306 


23.7656 


115.8574 


5 


15.708 


19.635 


.1374 


25. 


125. 


5% 


16.100 


20.629 


.1444 


26.2656 


134.6113 


5^ 


16.493 


21.647 


.1515 


27.5625 


144.7031 


5% 


16.886 


22.690 


.1588 


28.8906 


155.2871 


5X 


17.278 


23.758 


.1663 


30.25 


166.375 


5% 


17.671 


24.850 


.1739 


31.6406 


177.9785 


5% 


18.064 


25.967 


.1817 


33.0625 


190.1094 


5% 


18.457 


27.108 


.1897 


34.5186 


202.7793 


6. 


18.849 


28.274 


.1979 


36. 


216. 


6% 


19.242 


29.464 


.2062 


37.5156 


229.7832 


6X 


19.635 


30.679 


.2147 


39.0625 


244.1406 


6% 


20.027 


3.1.919 


.2234 


40.6406 


259.084 


6X 


20.420 


33.183 


.2322 


42.25 


274.625 


6% 


20.813 


34.471 


.2412 


43.8906 


290.7754 


6% 


21.205 


35.784 


.2504 


45.5625 


307.5469 


6% 


21.598 


37.122 


.2598 


47.2656 


324.9512 


7 


21.991 


38.484 


.2693 


49. 


343. 


7% 


22.383 


39.871 


.2791 


50.7656 


361.7051 


7K 


22.776 


41.282 


.2889 


52.5625 


381.0781 


7% 


23.169 


42.718 


.2990 


54.3906 


401.1309 


7X 


23.562 


44.178 


.3092 


56.25 


421.879 


7% 


23.954 


45.663 


.3196 


58.1406 


443.3223 


7% 


24.347 


47.173 


.3299 


60.0625 


465.4844 


VA 


24.740 


48.707 


.3409 


62.0156 


488.3730 


8 


25.132- 


50.265 


.3518 


64. 


512. 



TABLE 12 — Continued 



240 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Diameters, Circumferences, 


Areas, Squares, 








AND 


Cubes. 








Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 




8% 


25.515 


51.848 


.3629 


66.0156 


536.3770 




8% 


25.918 


53.456 


.3741 


68.0625 


561.5156 




8% 


26.310 


55.088 


.3856 


70.1406 


587.4277 




8% 


26.703 


56.745 


.3972 


72.25 


614.125 




8% 


27.096 


58.426 


.4089 


74.3906 


641.6191 




8% 


27.489 


60.132 


.4209 


76.5625 


669.9219 




8% 


27.881 


61.862 


.4330 


78.7656 


699.0449 




9 


28.274 


63.617 


.4453 


81. 


729. 




9% 


28.667 


65.396 


.4577 


83.2656 


759.7988 




9% 


29.059 


67.200 


.4704 


85.5625 


791.4531 




9% 


29.452 


69.029 


.4832 


87.8906 


823.9746 




9% 


29.845 


70.882 


.4961 


90.25 


857.375 




9% 


30.237 


72.759 


.5093 


92.6406 


891.666 




9% 


30.630 


74.662 


.5226 


95.0625 


926.8594 




9% 


31.023 


76.588. 


.5361 


97.5156 


962.0968 




10 


31.416 


78.540 


.5497 


100. 


1000. 




10% 


31.808 


80.515 


.5636 


102.5156 


1037.9707 




10% 


32.201 


82.516 


.5776 


105.0625 


1076.8906 




10% 


32.594 


84.540 


.5917 


107.6406 


1116.7715 




10% 


32.986 


86.590 


.6061 


110.25 


1157.625 




10% 


33.379 


88.664 


.6206 


112.8906 


1199.4629 




10% 


33.772 


90.762 


.6353 


115.5625 


1242.2969 




10% 


34.164 


92.885 


.6499 


118.2656 


1286.1387 




11 


34.557 


95.033 


.6652 


121. 


1331. 




11% 


34.950 


97.205 


.6804 


123.7656 


1376.8926 




11X 


35.343 


99.402 


.6958 


126.5625 


1423.8281 




11% 


35.735 


101.623 


.7143 


129.3906 


1471.8184 




11% 


36.128 


103.869 


.7270 


132.25 


1520.875 




11% 


36.521 


106.139 


.7429 


135.1406 


1571.0098 




11% 


36.913 


108.434 


.7590 


138.0625 


1622.234 




11% 


37.306 


110.753 


.7752 


141.0155 


1674.5605 




12 


37.699 


113.097 


.7916 


144. 


1728. 





TABLE 12 — Continued 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 

The following extracts from the Plumbing 
Code of the City of Chicago, will, it is believed, 
be of material assistance to the student. Of course 
the rules and regulations controlling plumbing 
work in various cities differ more or less, accord- 
ing to conditions, but the bulk of the rules herein 
given will serve as a reliable guide to the plumber 
in his work, regardless of the locality in which 
the work is to be performed, and it is for this pur- 
pose that they are here inserted. 

PLUMBING. 

Permit for use of water.] All applications for 
permits for the introduction or use of water sup- 
plied by the city shall be made in writing upon 
printed forms furnished by the department of pub- 
lic works, the blanks to be specifically and prop- 
erly filled in and signed by the owner or duly au- 
thorized agent of the owner, and no work what- 
ever shall be done in the street, or outside a build- 
ing, by any plumber or other person for the pur- 
pose of making any connection to or with any city 
water main or pipe until after the issuance of such 
permit. This restriction shall not prevent any 
person from rendering assistance in case of acci- 
dent to water pipes occurring at night, or at any 
time requiring immediate action. In case of any 

241 



242 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

such accident prompt report thereof shall be made 
to the department of public works by the person 
rendering such assistance. 

Tapping street main.] No person except the 
tappers employed by the department of public 
works shall be permitted under any circumstances 
to tap any street main or insert stop-cocks or fer- 
rules therein. All service cocks or ferrules must 
be inserted at or near the top of the street main, 
and not in any case nearer than six inches from 
the bell of the pipe. The size of the cock to be in- 
serted shall be that specified in the permit. 

Lead pipe— kind permitted— weight required.] 
No lead pipe shall be used in any work done under 
the authority of a license or permit issued by the 
city, except such as is known to the trade as 
1 1 strong, ' ' and every lead pipe so used must weigh 
as follows: 

Half-inch internal diameter 1% pounds per lineal foot. 

Five-eighths inch internal diameter. . .2% 
Three-fourths inch " " ...3 

One inch " " . . .4 

One and one-fourth in. internal diam..4% 
One and one-half in. " " . . 6 

One and three-fourths in. " ..6% 

Two inches " " . . 8 

No pipe shall be used for the purpose of street 
service of a different material or size from that 
herein specified, except by special permit, issued 
by the commissioner of public works. 

Service pipe— joints.] All service pipes lead- 
ing from street mains to the building line shall as 
far as practicable be laid in the ground to a depth 
of not less than five feet, and every such pipe 
shall be laid in such manner and be of such sur- 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 243 

plus length as to prevent breakage or rupture by 
settlement, and all joints in such pipes shall be of 
the kind termed " plumber or wiped joints/ ' The 
connections of pipe by the so-called "cup-joint" 
is prohibited. 

Stop-cocks.] Every service pipe shall be pro- 
vided with a stop-cock for each consumer, easily 
accessible, placed beyond damage by frost and so 
situated that the water can be conveniently shut 
off and drained from the pipes. 

Stop-cock— location— shutoff box.] Such stop- 
cocks,- unless otherwise specially permitted, shall 
be connected to service pipes within the sidewalk 
at or near the curb line of the same, and be in- 
closed in and protected by a cast-iron box with a 
cover having the letter "W" of suitable size cast 
thereon; such iron box shall be of form and dimen- 
sions satisfactory to the commissioner of public 
works and shall extend from service pipe to sur- 
face of sidewalk, and be of proper size to admit a 
stop key for operating the stop-cock. 

Single tap for several buildings— independent 
cocks required.] Whenever two or more distinct 
buildings or premises are to be supplied by means 
of branch or sub-service pipes supplied by a single 
tap in the street main, each branch shall be inde- 
pendently arranged with stop-cock and box on 
the curb line in the manner above described. All 
cocks used at the sidewalks by plumbers shall be 
of the kind known as ' l round water way. ' ' 

Opening of streets— permit— deposit.] Before 
filling any trench the service cock in the street 



244 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

main shall be covered with a suitable cast-iron box 
furnished by the city; the earth shall be well 
rammed under the main to a level with the top 
thereof; from thence the trench shall be filled in 
layers of not more than twelve inches in depth r 
and each layer thoroughly rammed or puddled to 
prevent settlement. This work together with the 
replacing of sidewalks, ballast and paving shall be 
done in all cases by the city. A sufficient sum of 
money shall be deposited with the city before the 
issuance of the permit for opening the street, to 
cover this expense. 

No permit shall be granted for the opening of 
any paved street for the tapping of mains or lay- 
ing of service pipes, when the ground is frozen to 
a depth of twelve inches or more, except when in 
the opinion of the commissioner of public works 
there is a sufficient emergency to justify it. 

High pressure steam boiler— supply tank re- 
quired.] All persons are prohibited from connect- 
ing pipes whereby high pressure steam boilers 
may be supplied with water direct from city water 
mains. All such boilers shall be provided with a 
tank or other receptacle of sufficient capacity to 
hold at least six hours' supply of water, which 
may be used in case of a pipe district being shut 
off for the repair of water mains or for the making 
of connections or extensions. In such cases the 
city will not be responsible for a lack of water for 
steam boilers, or for any purpose. 

New plumbing— repairs— pipes and traps to be 
exposed till after tests.] In all buildings here- 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 245 

after erected in the city, both public and private, 
and in all buildings already built or erected where- 
in any plumbing is installed or wherein any sewer- 
connected pipe shall be repaired or changed, ex- 
cept for minor repairs, on the sewer side of the 
trap, the drain, soil, rainwater, when rainwater 
pipes are within building, waste pipes, or any 
other pipe or pipes connected directly or indirect- 
ly to any drain, soil or waste pipe, and all traps, 
shall be placed within buildings and exposed to 
view for ready inspection and test, and shall re- 
main so exposed until approved by the commis- 
sioner of health. In no case shall a trap be inac- 
cessible at any time. 

Metal connections — requirements — tests — 
tile sewers above ground prohibited.] All soil or 
waste pipes shall be connected to the tile sewer, 
if a tile sewer is laid within the building, and if 
the connection is made above the ground or floor, 
by a suitable metal connection, which shall make 
an air-tight and water-tight joint, without the use 
of cement, mortar, putty or other like material, 
and which can and shall be tested with water when 
in place, such metal connections shall be in view 
at the time of final inspection. 

The entire fitting or piece which is used to con- 
nect the iron soil or waste pipe to the tile sewer 
shall be regarded as the metal connection. Metal 
connections which can be removed from the sewer 
and soil or waste pipes, after once in place with- 
out removing a portion of the iron soil or waste 
pipe, are prohibited. No such metal connection 



246 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

shall be used which has not been submitted to and 
tested and approved by the chief sanitary inspec- 
tor and the commissioner of health. No tile sewer 
shall be used above the ground or cement floor or 
where a cement joint is exposed to the air. One 
of each such approved types of metal connections 
shall be kept in the sanitary bureau of the depart- 
ment of health. 

Connections outside buildings and under 
ground.] Outside of the building and under 
ground the connection between the soil or waste 
pipe and the vitrified tile sewer shall be thorough- 
ly made with live Portland cement mortar, made 
with one part cement and two parts clean, sharp 
sand. 

An arched or other proper opening shall be pro- 
vided in the wall for the house drain to prevent 
damage by settlement. The opening around the 
house drain may be filled with pure refined as- 
phaltum. 

Drains connected with sewers— sizes— connec- 
tions must be made by plumber.] It shall be the 
duty of every person or corporation connecting or 
causing to be connected any drain, soil pipe or 
passage with any sewer from any building, struc- 
ture or premises, to cause such drain, soil pipe, 
passage or connection to be at all times adequate 
for its purpose and of such size and dimensions 
as to convey and allow freely to pass, whatever 
may properly enter the same. 

All connections between metal pipes and be- 
tween metal pipe and tile sewers shall be made by 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 247 

a licensed plumber and in such manner as the 
commissioner of health shall direct. 

Separate drainage for every building— excep- 
tion.] Every building shall be separately and in- 
dependently connected with a public or private 
sewer, when there is any such sewer in the street 
adjoining such building. 

The entire plumbing and drainage system of 
every building shall be entirely separate and in- 
dependent from that of any other building, ex- 
cept where there are two buildings on one lot, one 
in the rear of the other. If there is no sewer in 
the alley to which the rear building can connect, 
the sewer of the first building may be extended to 
serve such rear building. 

Drainage of kitchen slops, etc.— water supply.] 
All connections with sewers or drains used for 
the purpose of carrying off animal refuse from 
water-closets or otherwise, and slop of kitchens, 
shall have fixtures for a sufficiency of water to be 
so applied as to properly carry off such matters. 

Soil pipe— size— increaser.] Every water closet 
located within any building shall waste into a pipe 
not less than four inches in diameter. Such pipe 
shall be increased below the roof line as herein- 
after provided and shall be carried through and 
above the roof. 

Definition of terms.] In this article the term 
"main soil pipe" is applied to any pipe receiving 
the discharge of one or more water closets, with 
or without other fixtures, and extending through 
the roof. 



248 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

The term " branch soil pipe" is applied io any 
pipe receiving the discharge from one or more 
water closets and with or without other fixtures 
and leading towards and connecting with the main 
soil pipe, but not necessarily extending through 
the roof. 

The term " waste pipe" is applied to any pipe 
receiving the discharge from any fixture or fix- 
tures other than water closets. 

The term "house drain" is applied to the pipe 
within any building which receives the total dis- 
charge from any fixture or sets of fixtures, and 
may or may not include rain water, and which 
conducts or carries the same to the house sewer. 
The house drain, when rain water is allowed to 
discharge into it, shall be not less than six inches 
internal diameter. 

The term "house sewer" is applied to the tile 
sewer, which shall be not less than six inches in- 
ternal diameter, and which begins outside of the 
wall of a building and connects the house drain 
with the public sewer in the street. 

The term "main vent" is applied to the ver- 
tical line of air pipe running through two or more 
floors to which the vent or revent pipes from the 
various floors are connected. 

The term "vent pipe" is applied to any pip© 
provided to ventilate a system of piping, and to 
which the revents are connected. 

The term "revent pipe" is applied to any pipe 
used to prevent trap siphonage and back pressure. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 



249 



The term "soil vent" or "waste vent" is ap- 
plied to that part of the main soil pipe or waste 
pipe which is above the highest installed fixture 
waste connection and extends through the roof. 

When sizes of pipes are specified the internal 
diameters of the pipes are meant. 

Iron pipes— quality— weights.] All soil, waste 
and vent pipes, except as hereinafter specified for 
lead branches and brass pipes, shall be either ex- 
tra heavy cast-iron pipe coated with tar or as- 
phaltum, or standard galvanized wrought iron 
pipe; provided, that wrought iron pipe coated 
with tar or asphaltum may be used for soil and 
waste pipes, but not for soil or waste vent nor 
for vent or revent pipes. All pipes shall be sound 
and free from holes, cracks, or defects of any 
kind. 

The following weights per lineal foot will be 
accepted as complying with this chapter as to 
weight of extra heavy cast-iron pipe: 

Diameter 

2 inches 5% pounds per lineal foot 



3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

10 
12 



9% 

13 

17 

20 

27 

33% 

45 

54 



Extra heavy cast-iron pipe shall have the mak- 



250 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



er's name and the weight per foot clearly cast 
upon each section thereof. 

The following weights per lineal foot are re- 
quired for standard wrought iron pipe, galvan- 
ized, or tar-coated pipe : 
Diameter 

1% inches 2.68 pounds per lineal foot. 



2 


3.61 " 


272 ' 


5.74 " 


3 


' 7.54 " 


3y 2 ' 


9.00 " 


4 


10.66 " 


4% ' 


12.49 " 


5 


14.50 " 


6 


18.76 " 


7 


< 23.27 " 


8 


1 28.18 " 


9 


33.70 " 


10 


40.00 " 



Fittings— quality— cleanout fittings.] All fit- 
tings used for soil or waste pipe, except as herein- 
after specified, shall be either extra heavy tar or 
asphaltum-coated fittings or extra heavy galvan- 
ized, cast or malleable iron, recessed and threaded 
drainage fittings. The burr formed by cutting 
the wrought iron pipe shall be carefully reamed 
out. Proper sized cleanout fittings shall be in- 
stalled at each ninety degree intersection of soil 
or waste pipe. 

Cleanouts— tapping pipes.] On soil or waste 
pipes four inches or more in diameter heavy brass 
cleanouts, not less' than four inches in diameter, 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 251 

shall be used. Where iron drain, soil, waste or 
vent pipes are drilled and tapped, brass plugs or 
brass soldering nipples shall be used. 

Pipe joints to be filled.] All joints on cast-iron 
soil, waste or drain pipes and rain water leaders 
shall be so filled with picked oakum and molten 
lead and hand calked as to make them air and 
water-tight. The quantity of lead used shall be 
twelve ounces of fine soft lead for each inch in 
the diameter of the pipe. 

Vertical lines of pipes— floor rests.] Vertical 
lines of soil, waste or other pipes, and rain water 
pipes when within buildings, shall be provided 
with floor rests at intervals of every second floor. 

Pipe supports— pipe hooks prohibited.] The foot 
of every vertical soil, rain or waste pipe shall be 
adequately supported by brick, stone or concrete 
piers properly constructed by the use of cement 
mortar or cement concrete, or shall be otherwise 
equally well supported. Pipes under the basement 
floor or in the ground shall be properly laid, grad- 
ed and supported. Pipes above the floor shall 
either be adequately supported or suspended. 

The use of pipe hooks for supporting pipes is 
prohibited. At the foot of each soil or waste pipe 
shall be placed a cleanout fitting, which shall be 
accessible at all times. 

Prohibited fittings.] No double hub or straight 
crosses shall be used on horizontal or vertical 
lines. The use of bands, saddles and sleeves is 
prohibited. 

Buildings subject to vibrations— calked joints 



252 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

prohibited.] Pipes with calked joints shall not be 
installed in buildings subject to vibrations from 
operating machinery or subject to other causes 
likely to loosen such calked joints. 

Lead pipe— quality— not to extend within par- 
titions.] Lead pipe of a quality equal to " extra 
light" shall be used for water-closet bends and as 
branches for vent, revent and waste pipe connec- 
tions. 

Lead pipe used for vent or revent connections 
shall not extend into or be used within partitions. 

Lead pipe connections— wiped joints— brass 
pipes.] All connections between lead and metal 
pipes shall be made by heavy brass solder nip- 
ples, or heavy brass or combination ferrules which 
have been approved by the department of health. 
All solder connections shall be regulation wiped 
joints. If brass pipe is used it shall be drawn 
tubing of No. 18 B. and S. gauge. 

Straight tees prohibited.] Straight tees for soil 
or waste pipes shall not be used. 

Chimney ventilation of soil or waste pipes pro- 
hibited.] No brick, sheet metal, earthenware or 
chimney flue shall be used for a sewer ventilator 
or to ventilate any trap, soil, waste or other sew- 
er-connected pipe or opening. 

Iron pipe— where used.] Every soil, revent, 
vent and waste pipe shall be of iron, except as is 
specified herein for lead or brass pipe. 

Vertical pipes through roof— increased how.] 
The vertical soil, waste or vent pipes (where the 
vent or continuous waste pipe is not reconnected 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 253 

to a soil, waste or vent pipe below the roof) shall 
extend through and above the roof at least eight 
inches and have a diameter of at least one inch 
greater than that of the pipe proper; but in no 
case shall it be less than four inches in diameter 
through and above the roof. 

The increasers shall extend at least one foot be- 
low the roof. No cap or cowl shall be affixed to 
the top of any such pipe or pipes. 

Pipes above main building— nuisance.] Soil, 
waste and vent pipes shall be carried above the 
roof of the main building when otherwise they 
would open within fifteen feet of the windows or 
doors of such or adjoining buildings, and shall 
be not less than six feet from any ventilator or 
chimney opening of such or adjoining building 
or buildings; nor shall they be located so as to 
be a nuisance to the occupants of any building. 

Soil and waste pipes to be extended-— when.] 
Except in office buildings and factories, branches 
of soil or waste pipes of twenty feet or more in 
length shall be extended full size, increased and 
carried through and above the roof. Branches of 
waste pipes less than twenty feet in length shall 
be either carried full size and increased and car- 
ried through and above roof or returned full size 
to the main vent pipe. 

Sizes of vent pipes.] Vent pipes into which the 
revent pipe of rows of fixtures are connected shall 
not be less than one and one-half inches in diam- 
eter for not to exceed three plumbing fixtures 
other than sink, urinal or water closets. For a 



254 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

greater number of such fixtures the vent pipe 
shall be at least two inches in diameter. 

Where the vents from water closets and other 
plumbing fixtures are connected into the same 
vent pipe, the size of the vent pipe shall be at 
least two inches in diameter from the main vent 
pipe to the point of connection to the vent of the 
other fixtures not requiring a two-inch revent. 

Ejectors— sizes of vent pipes.] The soil or 
waste pipe leading to an ejector or other appli- 
ance for raising sewage or other waste matter to 
the street sewer, shall, where a water closet or 
closets are installed, be ventilated by a vent pipe 
not less than four inches in diameter. Where fix- 
tures other than water closets are installed the 
waste pipe shall be ventilated by a vent pipe of 
the same diameter as the waste pipe. Soil vents, 
vents and revents for ejectors shall be installed 
according to the provisions of this chapter gov- 
erning soil, waste, vent and revent pipes. 

Horizontal waste pipes prohibited— amount of 
pitch.] Horizontal soil or waste pipes are pro- 
hibited. In all possible cases the pitch shall be 
one-fourth of an inch to the foot, making the 
grade in the direction of the outflow. 

Drainage and vent fittings— prohibited vents.] 
Where rows of fixtures are placed in line where 
galvanized wrought iron pipe is used for vents or 
revents, galvanized iron, malleable or cast-iron 
fittings or cast iron drainage fittings shall be used. 

All vent fittings shall be either galvanized, 
tarred or asphaltum coated. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 255 

Horizontal vent pipes unless practical shall not 
be used. Lines of soil, waste, or vent pipes shall 
be run in a thoroughly workmanlike manner. 
Trapped or sagged, or drops in, vents or revents 
are prohibited. No vent pipe from the house side 
of any trap shall connect to any sewer, vent pipe 
or soil or waste pipe. 

Continuous vents— ventilation of traps— crown 
venting prohibited.] Trap revents shall be con- 
tinuous where possible. Where the vent or revent 
pipes are continuous and traps are ventilated 
through the waste fitting, the center of the out- 
let of such fitting shall not be set below the water 
seal of the trap; and the trap shall not be more 
than three feet from the waste fitting. 

No crown venting shall be permitted. 

Size of soil and waste pipes.] The least diam- 
eter of soil pipe permitted is four inches. A ver- 
tical waste pipe into which a kitchen sink or 
sinks discharge shall be two inches in diameter, 
and at least three inches in diameter if receiving 
the waste of five or more floors, and shall have 
not less than one and one-half inch branches. 

Trap prohibited— where.] There shall be no 
traps at the foot of soil or waste pipes, nor shall 
there be any trap upon the house drain or house 
sewer. 

This section shall not prohibit the use of traps 
at the foot of rain water leaders or upon drains 
or sewers used exclusively for conducting rain 
water to a public sewer. 

Trap revents— concealed partitions.] Every 



256 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

water-closet, urinal, sink, basin, bath, and every 
laundry tub or set of laundry tubs, or any other 
plumbing fixtures shall be effectively and sepa- 
rately trapped and revented, except as hereinafter 
provided for anti-siphon traps. 

All traps shall be protected from siphonage by 
special vent or revent pipes, except where anti- 
siphon traps are permitted. Such revented trap 
shall not depend upon any concealed partition for 
its water seal. 

Connected wastes.] A connected waste pipe re- 
ceiving the discharge of not more than two bas- 
ins, set in line, may waste into a single trap, which 
shall not be more than two feet from the waste 
outlet of one of the fixtures. 

Floor washes— prohibited traps— back water 
valve.] When floor washes are connected it shall 
be by means of a deep seal trap. Bell traps and 
cast-iron S. and P. traps having covers over hand 
holes on the sewer side of the trap, held in place 
by lugs or bolts, are prohibited. Where a floor 
drain is placed in a basement, it shall be protect- 
ed from back sewage by means of some suitable 
and approved back water valve or stop. Covered 
floor gutters are prohibited. 

Bath tub drum trap— revent.] Each bath tub 
shall be provided with a drum trap. Traps on 
bath tubs shall be placed in such a manner that 
the cleanout will be in plain view and above the 
floor. The drum trap shall be revented through 
either a ' ' TY, * ' a ' ' Y, ' ' or a drainage fitting. 

Traps— placing of— water seal.] Traps shall 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 257 

be placed as near to the fixtures as possible, and 
in no case shall a trap be more than two feet from 
the waste outlet of its fixture. 

All traps shall have at least a one and one-half 
inch water seal and they shall be set true with 
respect to their water level. 

Waste pipe connection with closet bend, etc., 
prohibited— exception.] In no case shall a waste 
pipe from any fixture be connected with any wa- 
ter-closet trap, lead bend, vent or revent connec- 
tion for same, except that a waste connection may 
be made to a lead bend in old or repaired work. 

Water-closet revent— size.] Water-closets when 
placed within buildings shall have two-inch re- 
vents for each water-closet trap, except as here- 
inafter provided. 

Sizes of vent pipes— revents.] The main vent 
pipe for traps of water-closets in buildings four 
stories or under shall be at least two inches in 
diameter and have two-inch revents, except that 
revents for the traps of other plumbing fixtures 
may be the same diameter as waste traps. In 
buildings more than four stories high and not 
more than six stories high, the main vent pipes 
for water-closets with or without other plumbing 
fixtures shall be at least two and one-half inches 
in diameter. In buildings more than six stories 
high and not to exceed eighteen stories, the main 
vent pipes for water-closets with or without other 
plumbing fixtures shall be at least three inches 
in diameter. In buildings more than eighteen 
stories high the main vent pipe for water-closets 



258 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

with or without other fixtures shall be at least 
four inches in diameter. The main vent pipe for 
other fixtures than water-closets in buildings four 
stories and under shall be at least two inches in 
diameter. In buildings more than four stories 
high and not more than eight stories high the 
main vent pipes shall be at least two and one-half 
inches in diameter. In buildings more than eight 
stories high the main vent pipe shall be at least 
three inches in diameter, except that the diameter 
of the vent pipe may be reduced to two and one- 
half inches for the six lower stories; provided, 
that where the waste pipe for fixtures other than 
water-closets exceeds three inches in diameter the 
main vent pipe shall be at least three inches in 
diameter. The size of revent to traps of plumbing 
fixtures other than water-closets shall be at least 
the same size as waste to traps. 

Vents— size of for twelve fixtures.] Where 
more than twelve closets are installed on any floor 
the vent pipe for the same shall be at least three 
inches in diameter with two-inch revents for traps. 

For purposes of reventing, any four fixtures 
other than water-closets (where the same are 
placed on one floor) shall be taken as equal to 
one water-closet. This is to apply where water- 
closets are revented through the same vent pipe. 

Vents in residences.] Vent pipes for water- 
closets in residences shall be two inches in diam- 
eter with same size branches, and for other fix- 
tures not less than one and one-half inches in 
diameter with branches the same size as waste and 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 259 

trap; except that the vent pipe for a kitchen sink 
shall be two inches in diameter. 

Sizes of waste pipes in buildings over four 
stories in height.] Where fixtures other than wa- 
ter-closets are installed in a building more than 
four stories and basement or cellar high, having 
no soil pipe from ground in building to and 
through roof, and where the total number of fix- 
tures wasting into one pipe exceeds six, the same 
shall waste into at least a two and one-half inch 
pipe, which shall be carried through the roof; ex- 
cept that where a battery of urinals and no water- 
closets are installed in any building (where a 
three-inch waste pipe is required) the same shall 
be carried at least three inches in diameter from 
the ground in the building up and through the 
roof. 

Sizes of waste pipes in buildings four stories 
in height and under.] In buildings of four stories 
and under, where no water-closet is installed and 
where no sewer-connected soil pipe is carried from 
ground in building to roof, the fixtures if six or 
more in number shall waste into a pipe at least 
two and one-half inches in diameter, which shall 
be carried through the roof. 

Where a smaller number of fixtures is installed 
the main waste pipe shall be two inches in diam- 
eter and carried through the roof, except that 
where a battery of urinals having a three-inch 
waste pipe is installed the waste pipe shall be 
carried at least three inches in diameter from the 
ground in the building up and through the roof. 



260 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Vents reconnected— connections prohibited with 
floors below.] All vents shall be either run sep- 
arately through the roof or be reconnected to an 
increaser twelve inches below the roof, or they 
may be reconnected to the soil vent or main vent 
pipe not less than three feet above the highest 
floor on which fixtures are placed; provided, that 
no fixture or fixtures shall be placed on any floor 
or floors above and connected to the soil, waste, 
vent or revent pipes from the fixtures on floors 
below; nor shall any fitting or fittings for future 
connections be placed in any soil or waste pipe 
above the point of revent connection. Where fix- 
tures are afterwards installed on other floors the 
vent and revent pipes of the fixtures, already in- 
stalled shall be rearranged to conform to the pro- 
visions of this chapter. Reconnections will not be 
permitted where said vent pipes run through more 
than five floors. 

Length of horizontal vents.] Except in office 
buildings and in factories, the vent pipes from 
any fixture or fixtures reconnected as hereinbefore 
provided, shall not span a horizontal distance to 
exceed twenty feet in length. In office buildings 
and factories this distance shall not exceed forty 
feet. 

Vent pipe increased.] Where a vent pipe is 
carried independently through the roof it shall be 
increased as provided for in preceding sections. 

Prohibited use for revents, etc.] No trap, re- 
vent or vent shall be used as a waste or soil pipe. 

Revents for adjoining fixtures.] Where bath 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 261 

rooms are located on opposite sides of a wall and 
directly opposite each other and on the same floor 
in any building and have a common soil or waste 
pipe in the same separating wall, the revents from 
fixtures in either or both of such bath rooms may 
connect into the same pipe. 

Where two plumbing fixtures, other than water 
closets, waste into a double "Y" or double "TY" 
fitting, a single proper revent connected at or 
near the junction of the two waste lines forming 
a part of the fitting will be permitted. 

Safe wastes.] All lead or other safes where 
necessary under fixtures shall be drained by a 
special pipe, the same to discharge into an open 
water supplied sink or into a deep seal trap, and 
in no case shall the safe be connected with any 
waste, soil or drain pipe or sewer. The ends of 
safe waste pipes shall be covered by flap valves. 

Overflow pipes— how connected.] Overflow pipes 
from fixtures shall be in each case connected on 
the inlet side of the trap. 

Refrigerator wastes— sizes— traps.] The waste 
pipe from a refrigerator or ice box shall not be 
directly connected with any soil, rain or waste 
pipe or with the drain or sewer, or discharge upon 
the ground. It shall discharge into an open water 
supplied sink or over a deep sealed trap and shall 
be as short as possible and disconnected from the 
refrigerator or ice box by at least four inches; and 
where refrigerators or ice boxes are placed in 
buildings and upon two or more floors, the waste 
and vent pipe thereof shall be continuous and shall 



262 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

run through the roof and in no case shall it open 
within six feet of an open soil or vent pipe. 

The size of a waste pipe for refrigerators for 
two floors or less shall be at least one and one- 
half inches, and two inches for three floors and 
over and under five floors, and two and one-half 
inches for five floors and over. Each refrigera- 
tor or ice box shall be provided with a suitable 
trap with an accessible trap screw or cleanout. 
Such trap shall be placed in the one and one-half 
inch waste pipe and shall be near the refrigerator 
or ice box. Such traps need not be separately 
revented. 

House boilers— sediment pipes.] The sediment 
pipe from house boilers shall not be connected 
into the sewer side of any trap nor directly con- 
nected into any soil or waste pipe or drain. 

Water-closets— flush tanks— purity of water.] 
All water-closets and urinals within any building 
shall be supplied from special tanks or approved 
automatically flushing valves having flush pipes 
at least one and one-quarter inches in diameter. 
The water from, such tanks or cisterns shall not 
be used for any other purpose. The purity of 
such water and of water used in all other plumb- 
ing fixtures shall be equal to the purity of the 
water supplied through the Chicago waterworks 
system. 

Automatic flush tanks for urinals.] Flush tanks 
for urinals shall be arranged for intermittent and 
automatic discharges. All urinals shall be flushed 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 263 

at regular intervals not to exceed seven minutes 
each. 

Cisterns for water-closets— siphon discharge- 
house tanks.] Where cisterns are used for water- 
closets they shall each have a siphon discharge. 
The valves of such cisterns shall be fitted and ad- 
justed so as to prevent a waste of water. When 
the city pressure is not sufficient to supply such 
cisterns or plumbing fixtures with water, ade- 
quate pumps or house tanks shall be provided. 

Water-closets within buildings— flushing rim 
bowls.] All water-closets within buildings shall 
have flushing rim bowls. 

Water-closets within buildings— flushing dis- 
charge.] Water-closets and urinals within build- 
ings shall not be supplied from any water supply 
pipes direct. 

All water-closets within buildings shall be fitted 
with either siphon discharge flush or pressure 
tanks or approved automatically flushing valves 
not directly connected to the city water supply 
pipes. 

All individual water-closets within buildings 
at each flush shall receive not less than four gal- 
lons of water into the closet bowl at each dis- 
charge, which shall be discharged in such time 
and with such force as shall thoroughly clean the 
closet bowl at each flush. 

Long hopper closets— regulations.] Long hop- 
per closets shall not be installed within any build- 
ing hereafter constructed. Long hopper closets 
may be installed in a cellar or unfinished basement 



264 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

of old or existing buildings only. A water-closet 
in a basement or in a yard may be flushed with 
a hopper cock or stop and waste cock buried to a 
depth of at least three feet below the ground. A 
long hopper closet of the last named construction 
shall be located at least eight feet distant from 
any dwelling. 

A flushing rim water-closet may be placed ad- 
jacent to the outside wall of an existing building 
when the occupied floor of the building is not 
more than two feet above the ground level, in 
which case such closets shall be flushed by suit- 
able flushing cistern, the flushing pipe from which 
shall be brought nearly to the level of the closet 
seat on the inside of the building. 

Outside water-closets— where prohibited— regu- 
lations.] A water-closet shall not be installed on 
a porch or other like place. Outside water-clos- 
ets may be installed for buildings heretofore erect- 
ed only. 

Water-closets when placed in the yard of any 
building heretofore erected shall be separately 
trapped and placed not less than eight feet from 
any dwelling or other place of abode and so ar- 
ranged as to be conveniently and adequately 
flushed, and their water supply pipes and traps 
shall be protected from freezing. The compart- 
ments for such water-closets shall be adequately 
lighted and ventilated. 

Water-closets under sidewalks, etc.] Where 
water-closets or other plumbing fixtures are placed 
under a sidewalk, street, alley or other like place, 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 265 

adjoining and opening into the basement of any 
building, each and every fixture so placed shall 
be ventilated in the same manner as is provided 
for other plumbing fixtures in this chapter, and 
the water-closet compartments shall be adequate- 
ly lighted and ventilated. 

Places of employment— separate water-closets 
for men and women— number.] In all places of 
employment where men and women are employed, 
separate and sufficient water-closets shall be pro- 
vided for males and females. Water-closets for 
men shall be plainly marked " Men's Toilet" and 
water-closets for women shall be plainly marked 
"Women's Toilet." 

In all places of employment, one water-closet 
shall be provided for every twenty-five males or 
less number, and one water-closet shall be pro- 
vided for every twenty females or less number. 
Such water-closet facilities shall be furnished upon 
at least every second floor. Where there are em- 
ployes in any basement, such basement shall be 
considered as one floor. 

Water-closets in hotels and lodging houses.] In 

lodging houses and hotels hereafter erected or al- 
tered there shall be provided one water-closet for 
every twenty-five males or less number and one 
water-closet for every twenty females or less num- 
ber. The number of water-closets required shall 
be determined from the number of lodging quar- 
ters provided. There shall be at least one closet 
on each floor. The general water-closet accom- 



266 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

modations of a lodging house shall not be placed 
in the basement. 

Separate closets in buildings used for both busi- 
ness and residence purposes.] In all buildings 
used jointly for residence and business purposes, 
separate and sufficient water-closets shall be pro- 
vided for the use of families and for the use of 
employes and patrons of the place. 

Toilet paper.] No paper other than what is 
commonly known as toilet paper shall be placed 
in any water-closet or allowed to enter any soil 
pipe. 

House tanks— zinc and lead linings prohibited 
—overflow pipes.] Tanks in which water to be 
used for drinking or other domestic purposes is 
stored shall not be lined with zinc or lead. 

The overflow pipes from such tanks shall dis- 
charge upon the roof or be trapped and discharged 
into an open sink. Such overflow pipes shall not 
be connected into any soil waste pipe or other 
sewer connected pipe; nor shall the drain or sedi- 
ment pipe be connected into any soil, waste or 
other pipe directly connected with a sewer. 

Rain water leaders— prohibited uses— when to 
be trapped— construction.] Eain water pipes or 
leaders shall not be used as soil, waste or vent 
pipes; nor shall any soil, waste or vent pipe be 
used for a rain water pipe or leader. Where a 
rain water leader opens near any window, door or 
vent shaft, or is so located as to render it likely 
to become a nuisance, if not trapped, it shall be 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 267 

properly trapped far enough below the surface to 
prevent its becoming a nuisance or freezing. 

Inside rain water leaders shall be made of ex- 
tra heavy cast iron or tar or asphaltum coated 
wrought iron pipe or galvanized wrought iron 
pipe, with roof connections, made gas and water 
tight by means of heavy lead or copper drawn 
tubing, wiped or soldered to a brass ferrule, calked 
or screwed into the pipe. Outside rain water 
leaders may be of sheet metal, but they shall con- 
nect with the house drain by means of a five-foot 
length of cast iron pipe extending vertically at 
least four feet above the grade level. 

Steam pipes— condensers— vents.] No steam, 
exhaust, blowoff, drip or return pipe from any 
steam trap shall connect with the sewer or with 
any house drain, soil, or waste pipe or rain water 
pipe. The water or steam of condensation from 
such pipes, before it shall enter any sewer or 
drain, shall be discharged into a suitable cast iron 
catch basin or condenser, from which a special 
vent pipe not less than two inches in diameter 
shall extend through the roof. 

Blowoff pipes— how made— discharge.] Blow- 
off pipes from boiler or heating plants shall be 
either of extra heavy cast iron pipe or galvanized 
wrought iron pipe. No such blowoff or hot water 
pipe shall discharge directly or indirectly into 
any vitrified earthenware tile sewer within any 
building. 

Temperature of water entering sewer.] No 
•water of a higher temperature than one hundred 



268 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

and twenty degrees Fahrenheit shall be permitted 
to enter any house sewer direct. 

Area drains to be trapped— when.] When the 
area drains are connected to the house sewer or 
drain, they shall be effectively trapped. Such 
traps shall be protected from frost. 

Cellar drainer— ground water.] Cellars and 
basements shall be kept free from ground or sur- 
face water, and where the same are too low to 
be drained into the sewer, the water therefrom 
shall be lifted by a cellar drainer or other device, 
approved by the chief sanitary inspector, and dis- 
charged into the sewer. 

Floor washes in basements— building plans 
must indicate locations of backwater valves.] 
Floor washes for basements shall be provided 
with a deep seal trap, having a heavy strainer, 
and a backwater gate valve, or stop, accessible 
for cleaning. 

No backwater valve shall be used which has not 
been approved by the chief sanitary inspector. 

All building plans, where basement floor washes 
are connected, shall indicate where and what 
backwater valve or device is to be used. 

Sumps— tight cover.] Sumps or rodding basins 
for sub-soil drains shall be provided with tight 
cast iron covers. 

Wood sinks and tubs prohibited.] The instal- 
lation of stationary wooden sinks and wooden 
laundry tubs is prohibited inside of any building 
used for human habitation. Such sinks and tubs 
shall be of non-absorbent material. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 269 

Catch basins prohibited within buildings— ex- 
ceptions.] No catch basin or gravel basin shall 
be allowed within any building, except as pro- 
vided for in the following sections. 

Catch basin to intercept kitchen wastes— diam- 
eter.] Kitchen or other greasy wastes shall be 
intercepted by a catch basin or grease trap and 
thence conducted to the house sewer. 

The vitrified tile sewer through which kitchen 
wastes are conducted shall be at least six inches 
in internal diameter. 

Catch basins for kitchen wastes— construction 
— covers.] Catch basins for receiving such wastes 
shall be constructed either of brick, concrete or 
cast iron. If of brick or concrete, they shall be 
at least thirty inches in internal diameter at the 
base and may taper to not less than twenty-two 
inches internal diameter at the top. 

Each catch basin shall be covered at the grade 
level with a stone, iron or cement concrete cover, 
having an opening of sixteen inches diameter, 
and fitted with an eighteen inch iron lid of a 
weight not less than eighteen pounds. No stone 
cover shall be less than three inches in thickness. 
No wooden catch basin cover shall be hereafter 
installed. If a wooden catch basin cover becomes 
rotten or defective so as to require repair or re- 
placement, it shall be removed and replaced with 
a stone, iron or cement cover placed at the grade 
level. 

Every concrete cover hereafter installed shall, 
if not reinforced as hereinafter provided, be made 



270 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

at least three and one-half inches thick from a 
Portland cement concrete mixture consisting of 
one part cement, two parts limestone screening 
free from clay, and three parts number three 
crushed limestone such as will pass through a 
three-quarter inch sieve. The use of clean tor- 
pedo sand entirely free from dirt shall be con- 
sidered the equivalent of the two parts of lime- 
stone screening in this mixture. 

Every reinforced concrete cover shall be not 
less than three inches in thickness, made of the 
mixture above described, and shall be reinforced 
with two hoops of not less than gauge number 
ten wire, having the respective diameters of 
twenty and twenty-eight inches, and provided 
with at least eight cross connections of the same 
wire between the inner and outer hoops. 

All covers shall be manufactured under shel- 
ter, protected from the sun, wind and frost, and 
shall not be removed from such shelter for at 
least two weeks after manufacture. 

The walls of such catch basins, if of brick, shall 
be eight inches thick and laid in Portland cement 
mortar and plastered outside and inside with a 
half-inch coat of Portland cement mortar in pro- 
portion of one part of Portland cement and two 
parts of clean, sharp sand. The bottom shall be 
at least eight inches thick and of either brick 
laid in cement mortar or of Portland cement con- 
crete. The brick used shall be hard burned sewer 
brick. 

Where Portland cement concrete is used, the 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 271 

walls shall be at least live inches thick, and the 
concrete shall be made of one part of live Portland 
cement, three parts of clean, sharp sand, and four- 
parts of crushed stone free from dust and of sizes 
between one-fourth inch and one and one-half 
inches in largest diameter; and, in addition, the 
catch basins shall be plastered inside and out, 
as specified above for brick construction. Catch 
basins shall be made water tight. No re-tempered 
cement shall be used. 

The bottom of catch basins shall be at least 
two feet below the invert of the outlet to the 
sewer. 

The outlet shall be trapped to a depth of six 
inches below the invert of the outlet to the sewer 
to prevent the escape of grease, by a hood or trap 
of brick and cement mortar, or a hood of concrete 
or cast iron. 

The invert of the inlet to the catch basin for 
kitchen wastes shall be not less than two and one- 
half feet above the finished bottom of the catch 
basin. 

Catch basin dispensed with— grease trap.] 

Where the building covers the entire lot, the catch 
basin for kitchen wastes may be dispensed with; 
provided, that a suitable sized grease trap of ap- 
proved construction is installed and provided with 
a water jacket through which shall circulate the 
water that is drawn for the general kitchen use. 
Such grease traps shall at all times be accessible 
for cleaning. 



272 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Rain conductor connection— defective catch ba- 
sins.] Rain water leaders may connect to catch 
basins. Such leaders shall connect to a catch 
basin when they conduct water from a gravel 
roof. 

Defective and leaking catch basins shall be re- 
built according to the above specifications. 

Number of urinals in factories.] In all places 
of employment, one urinal shall be provided for 
every seventy-five males or less number. 

Urinals— construction— prohibited use.] The 
sides, back and base of every urinal stall placed 
within any building shall be of non-absorbent ma- 
terial. Urinal stalls having troughs set in the 
floors are prohibited. The top of the urinal base 
shall be set one and one-half inches above the 
finished floor level. Urinal troughs and sectional 
urinals, unless lipped and provided with suitable 
automatic flush tanks or approved intermittent 
and automatic flushing valves, are prohibited. No 
sectional urinals shall be placed within a building 
or compartment which is subject to vibrations. 

Urinal flush— prohibited materials— separate 
trap and waste pipe.] Every urinal stall shall 
have an individual lipped sanitary bowl. 

The use of cast iron, galvanized iron, sheet metal 
or steel urinal bowls and troughs is prohibited. 
Each urinal bowl shall be separately and inde- 
pendently trapped and shall have a waste pipe 
of at least two inches in diameter. 

Automatic flushing of urinals— frequency.] 
Each and every urinal trough and urinal bowl 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 273 

shall be intermittently and automatically flushed 
with at least one gallon water flush for each urinal 
bowl or two foot length of urinal trough and at 
intervals not to exceed seven minutes each during 
its period of use. 

The flushing of all such urinal fixtures shall be 
by means of either approved intermittently and 
automatically operated flush tanks or by inter- 
mittently and automatically operated flushing 
valves protected against a vacuum by a ground 
seat check valve. 

Urinal wastes— screens.] The waste pipe of a 
" battery' ' of not exceeding four urinals shall not 
be less than two inches in diameter. For batteries 
exceeding this number the waste pipe shall be at 
least three inches in diameter. 

No wire or metal screen shall be placed in any 
urinal bowl, unless every part of such screen is 
thoroughly washed at each water flush. 

Revent omitted— when.] Where a single water- 
closet or other plumbing fixture is located in a 
building or on the top floor of any building, and 
there is an adequate soil or waste pipe of undi- 
minished size from ground (in building) to roof, 
the revent pipe may be dispensed with ; provided, 
that for water-closets a non-siphoning trap, tested 
and approved by the chief sanitary inspector, or 
a closet of approved construction, is used for such 
work; and provided, further, that the trap of 
such fixture is located not more than five feet 
from such soil or waste pipe. 



274 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Revent omitted, when.] Where a toilet or bath 
room having not more than one closet and three 
other fixtures therein is located on one floor only 
or the top floor of any building, and such closet 
is set not more than five feet from the vertical 
soil pipe, the revent for the closet may be omitted; 
provided, that a closet of an approved construc- 
tion is installed. 

Vent pipes reconnected— exception.] Vent pipes 
shall be reconnected to main soil and waste pipes 
or drain by a "Y" branch below the lowest fix- 
ture, and in such manner as to prevent accumula- 
tion of rust. This shall not apply where there is 
a battery of fixtures on one floor only and no 
other fixtures on floors, above or below. 

Open Plumbing.] All plumbing fixtures shall 
be installed as open plumbing. 

Prohibited closets— removal.] Pan, plunger, 
offset, washout-range closets and washout latrines 
shall not be allowed in any building; nor shall 
hopper closets be installed in any building here- 
after erected. Such closets, when found to be a 
nuisance, shall be removed, or when the same are 
removed for repairs they shall not be again in- 
stalled. In alteration work, pan and plunger 
closets shall be removed. 

Eange closets of types approved by the com- 
missioner of health and the chief sanitary in- 
spector may be installed in factories and work- 
shops only, and such closets shall be installed in 
separate compartments as hereinbefore provided 
for water-closet compartments. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 275 

Reventing washout closets.] Where individual 
washout closets are installed they shall be re- 
vented above the floor line. Rubber connections 
or connections of like material shall not be used 
on any sewer connected pipe. 

Prohibited fixtures not reinstalled.] No fixture 
shall be installed and no fixture shall be recon- 
nected or reinstalled where it does not meet the 
requirements of this chapter. 

Earthenware trap connections— how made.] All 
earthenware and closet traps shall be connected to 
waste or soil pipes by inserting heavy brass floor 
or wall flanges, not less than one-fourth of an 
inch in thickness where lead bends are used, and 
shall be soldered to the same and bolted to the 
trap flange. 

Where brass or iron bends are used, brass or 
iron flanges not less than one-fourth of an inch 
in thickness may be used, and shall be screwed 
or calked to the same and bolted to the trap flange, 
and all such joints shall be made tight without the 
use of putty, cement, plaster, rubber or leather 
washers. The use of putty, cement, plaster, rub- 
ber, or leather washers is hereby prohibited in 
making all connections between traps of plumbing 
fixtures and soil or waste pipes. 

No flange, iron bend or gasket connection shall 
be used until it has been approved under test by 
the chief sanitary inspector. One of each of the 
above type of gaskets, flanges and iron bends shall 
be kept on exhibition in the sanitary bureau of the 
department of health. 



276 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Slip joints — ground joints.] Slip joints shall 
not be permitted on the sewer side of any trap, 
unless the metal connection is required between 
the soil or waste pipe and tile sewers. Unions 
on wrought iron, soil, waste and vent pipes shall 
be made by means of metallic brass-seated ground 
unions, or flange unions with Bheet lead gaskets, 
and made without other gaskets or packing. 

Barn drainage— traps— catch basins.] Floor 
washouts, urinal gutters and wash racks in barns 
or stables shall be provided with deep seal traps, 
having heavy strainers. Such traps shall have 
a depth of seal of at least three inches and shall 
be located at the floor line. An adequate water 
supply shall be provided for flushing such gutters. 

All liquid wastes from barns or stables shall 
be intercepted before entering the sewer by a 
catch basin placed outside of the building, which 
shall be either the catch basin which is constructed 
according to the specifications for such catch ba- 
sins or a cast iron catch basin provided with 
bolted air-tight iron cover. Barn drains and 
wastes shall be ventilated by sufficient and proper 
vents through the roof. 

Special permits — when issued.] Special permits 
will be issued by the chief sanitary inspector only. 

Where special permits are issued, the location 
shall be inspected before the work is started, and 
duplicate plans in ink, in the name of the owner, 
agent or architect, shall be submitted and ap- 
proved and placed on file. These plans shall show 
the proposed work, in plan and elevation. Such 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 277 

plans shall be drawn on paper or cloth and drawn 
to a quarter inch to the foot scale. 

The installation of any sewer connected fixture 
or of any sewer connected pipe or pipes other than 
those hereinbefore mentioned, or under any other 
conditions than those hereinbefore set forth, shall 
be as directed by the chief sanitary inspector, and 
the same shall be covered by special permits is- 
sued by him. 

Plumber's notification — inspection — ■ when.] 
When the plumbing in any building is ready for 
inspection, the plumber in charge of the work 
shall immediately notify the commissioner of 
health in writing of such fact at least twenty-four 
hours in advance of inspection. Inspections will 
not be made the same day that notifications are 
received. 

Inspection of repairs.] The following repairs 
and extensions to any part of the plumbing and 
drainage system in any building shall also be re- 
ported for inspection, viz.: where there is any 
change in any sewer connected pipe, and where 
such change is on the sewer side of the trap, ex- 
cept in the case of minor repairs. 

Inspection— test.] The entire plumbing system, 
when roughed in, in any building, shall be tested 
by the plumber in the presence of the plumbing 
inspector and as directed by him, under either a 
water pressure or air pressure. 

The water pressure test for plumbing shall be 
applied by closing the lower end of the vertical 
pipes and filling the pipes to the highest opening 



278 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

above the roof with water. The air pressure test 
for plumbing shall be applied with a force pump 
and mercury column equal to ten inches of mer- 
cury. The use of spring gauges is prohibited. 
Special provision shall be made to include all 
joints and connections to the finished line or face 
of floors or side walls, so that all vents or revents, 
including lead work, may be tested with the main 
stacks. All pipes shall remain uncovered in every 
part until they have successfully passed the test. 
After the completion of the work, and when fix- 
tures are installed, either a smoke test under a 
pressure of one inch water column shall be made 
of the system, including all vent and revent pipes, 
in the presence of the plumbing inspector and as 
directed by him, or a peppermint test made by 
using five fluid ounces of oil of peppermint for 
each line up to five stories and basement in height, 
and for each additional five stories or fraction 
thereof one additional ounce of peppermint shall 
be provided for each line. 

All defective pipes and fittings or fixtures shall 
be removed and all defective work shall be made 
good so as to conform to the provisions of this 
chapter. 

The tile drainage system inside any building 
shall be tested by the drainage layer or sewer 
builder, in the presence of the house drain in- 
spector, by closing up the end of the drains two 
feet outside the building and filling the pipes 
inside the building with water to a height of at 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 279 

least two feet above the highest point of the tile 
drainage system. 

Water-closet and urinal compartment— ventila- 
tion.] Water-closets and urinals shall not be in- 
stalled in an unventilated room or compartment. 
In every case the room or compartment shall be 
open to the outer air or be ventilated by means of 
an air duct or shaft or be mechanically ventilated. 

Where a urinal, bath or water-closet compart- 
ment is mechanically ventilated, the air shall be 
changed at least four times per hour by exhaust- 
ing the air from the compartment. 

In the case of an extension or alteration of any 
existing plumbing system, the same, if new stacks 
are run, shall be tested when roughed in and when 
completed, as hereinbefore provided. 

Peppermint test for alterations.] In other al- 
teration work, a peppermint test, and only this 
test, shall be applied by using five fluid ounces of 
oil of peppermint for each line up to five stories 
and basement in height, and for each additional 
five stories or fraction thereof one additional ounce 
of peppermint shall be provided for each line. 

Old work remodeled.] In remodeling work, 
the existing system of soil, waste and ventilating 
pipes shall be changed to make them reasonably 
conform to the provisions of this chapter. 

Light and ventilation.] All urinal, bath or 
water-closet compartments, hereafter constructed 
in any building, shall be lighted and ventilated 
as hereinafter provided for in this chapter. Every 
water-closet or urinal compartment or bath room 



280 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

in every now existing building, and every com- 
partment in buildings hereafter erected, where 
the compartment is more than one story under 
ground, shall be separately ventilated by a win- 
dow opening to the external air or by proper and 
adequate ventilating pipes, shafts or ducts run- 
ning through the roof or to the external air, and 
providing for at least four changes of air for the 
entire compartment each hour. All such compart- 
ments shall be adequately lighted by either nat- 
ural or artificial light. 

Toilet compartments— separate.] The urinal, 
bath or water-closet compartments shall be sep- 
arate compartments and shall be entirely sepa- 
rated from any other room, workshop, office or 
hall by a tight partition extending from floor to 
ceiling, and every door of every such compart- 
ment shall be provided with a door check to keep 
such door closed. 

No window or other opening shall be made to 
open from any such compartment for the purpose 
of ventilation, into any adjoining room, office, 
workshop, factory, hallway or compartment of any 
kind. 

Window area in toilet compartments.] In every 
building hereafter constructed, every such com- 
partment, where there is not more than one story 
under ground, shall have a window not less than 
one foot wide and of an area of at least four 
square feet for a floor area of forty-five square 
feet or less, opening directly into the outer air, 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 281 

or special light and air shaft, into which no other 
rooms or compartments, other than toilet com- 
partments, are ventilated. For upwards of forty- 
five square feet of floor area there shall be a win- 
dow area of at least one-tenth of the floor area. 
The windows in all cases are to be arranged so 
as to admit of their being opened at least one- 
half their height. The urinal, bath or water-closet 
compartments on the top floor of any building may 
be lighted and ventilated by means of a skylight 
and ventilator. The area of the skylight shall 
conform to the above specified areas for windows. 

Fixtures to be kept in sanitary condition.] All 

such fixtures in such compartments as are referred 
to in the previous section shall be kept in a thor- 
oughly clean and sanitary condition. 

Ventilation into court.] Nothing herein con- 
tained shall be construed as preventing the venti- 
lation of the above mentioned compartments into 
an outer, inner or lot line court. 

Plans— plan and elevation, etc.] Building plans 
in duplicate shall be filed with the bureau of sani- 
tary inspection before the original plans are ap- 
proved. Such duplicates shall be on paper or 
cloth and drawn to a standard scale, showing how 
all rooms and compartments of the building are 
to be lighted and ventilated. They shall also show 
in plans and in at least one elevation all drains, 
soil, waste, vent and revent pipes within the build- 
ing and the location of all plumbing fixtures with- 
in the building, the location of the catch basin 



282 PKACTICAL PLUMBING 

(in case one is necessary) outside of the building, 
and its connection to the drainage and sewerage 
system. 

Fee before plans are approved.] Before plans 
are approved, the following fees for inspection 
shall be paid to the city collector: 

When the building contains from one to six 
plumbing fixtures, the sum of fifty cents shall be 
paid for the inspection of each fixture, and for 
each and every additional fixture thereafter in- 
stalled, or for which waste or vent fittings are in- 
stalled, the sum of twenty-five cents shall be the 
fee for inspection. 

Certificate of inspection.] When the plumbing 
in a building is completed, the plumber or his rep- 
resentative shall secure for the owner of such 
building, from the commissioner of health, a cer- 
tificate of inspection, signed by the chief sanitary 
inspector and approved by the commissioner of 
health, certifying that the plumbing work has been 
properly inspected and tested as required by the 
provisions of this chapter. 

Penalty.] Any person or corporation who shall 
violate any of the provisions of this chapter shall 
be fined not more than two hundred dollars nor 
less than twenty-five dollars for each offense; and 
a separate and distinct offense shall be regarded as 
having been committed each day on which such 
violation shall be allowed or suffered to continue 
after the first offense. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 283 

GAS WATEK HEATERS. 

Permit required to install or connect gas water 
heaters in bath room or lavatory.] No person, 
firm or corporation shall install or connect any hot 
water heater in a bath room or lavatory for heat- 
ing water in the same by the use of natural or 
artificial gas as fuel, within the city of Chicago, 
without first having obtained a permit as herein- 
after provided. 

Application— permit— fee.] Any person, firm or 
corporation desiring to install or connect any 
water heater in a bath room or lavatory for heat- 
ing water for use in such bath room or lavatory 
by the use of natural or artificial gas as fuel, shall 
file with the commissioner of health of the city of 
Chicago an application upon forms furnished by 
the department of health, containing the name of 
the applicant, the street number of the building 
in which the said heater is to be used (and if the 
building is an apartment building, the location 
of the apartment), the floor plan of the room, 
showing the proposed position of the heater, the 
location of the plumbing fixtures, the door and 
window openings, showing their dimensions, and 
the course of the gas duct or ventilating pipe to 
the outer air or to a chimney connection. 

If such application is approved by the commis- 
sioner of health, it shall be the duty of the city 
clerk to issue a permit to the applicant upon the 
payment by him of a fee of fifty cents for every 
such heater desired to be installed or connected. 

Structural requirements.] No person, firm o* 



284 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

corporation shall install or connect any such heater 
unless it be provided with a metallic hood to which 
there shall be connected a suitable ventilating pipe 
not less than two inches in diameter, which said 
pipe shall extend to a chimney flue or to the open 
air in such a way as to carry off all escaping gases 
or fumes from such heater. In case such venti- 
lating pipe shall extend to the open air, it shall 
be provided with a cap or cowl so as to prevent 
a back draft. Every such heater shall be pro- 
vided with a convenient and adequate means of 
access to the burners and heating surfaces, for 
the purpose of lighting and cleaning same. No 
such heater shall be set closer to the floor than 
twenty inches, measuring from the top of the 
burner. The use of a pilot light on such heater 
is hereby prohibited; provided, that nothing here- 
in contained shall prevent the use of a pilot light 
on a large water heater automatically controlled 
by a thermostat and located elsewhere than in a 
bathroom or lavatory. 

Duty of owner or person in possession of heater.] 

It shall be the duty of the owner or person in pos- 
session or control of any premises where gas water 
heaters have heretofore been installed in bath 
rooms or lavatories to make such heaters comply 
with the requirements of this article, and it shall 
be unlawful for any person to use any such heater 
until it shall have been made to conform to the 
provisions of this article. 

Penalty.] Any person, firm or corporation vio- 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 285 

lating, failing or refusing to comply with any of 
the sections of this article shall be fined not less 
than twenty-five nor more than two hundred dol- 
lars for each offense. 



ELECTRICAL THAWING APPARATUS 

The use of the electric current for thawing 
frozen water pipes has been practically demon- 
strated during the last few years to be a reliable 
and economical means of alleviating one of the 
discomforts incidental to a rigorous winter. This 
method has placed within the reach of property 
owners a safe and inexpensive means of thawing 
frozen pipes, and thus quickly and cheaply re- 
lieving themselves of the discomfort and incon- 
venience caused by one or more frozen water pipes 
in the building. The old method of thawing frozen 
pipes by means of a torch is at once, slow and 
dangerous, very often resulting in setting fire to 
the building, whereas, with an electric thawing 
outfit the work may be done in much less time and 
without necessitating the removal or destruction 
of any portion of the woodwork or plastering. 

Should the frozen pipe happen to be under- 
ground, it may be thawed with an electric outfit, 
without going to the trouble and expense of ex- 
cavating the entire length of the pipe, as with the 
old method. All that is necessary is to connect 
the terminals of the electric circuit to the pipe 
at two points far enough apart to include the 
frozen portion of the pipe within the circuit. This 
means digging down to the pipe at only two places 
286 



ELECTRICAL THAWING APPARATUS 287 

and these excavations need be only large enough 
to permit a man to connect the wires to the pipe. 
In order that the student may get an idea of the 
construction and operation of this valuable ad- 
junct to the modern plumber's equipment of tools, 
a description and illustrations are herein given of 
two styles of standard thawing outfits, as manu- 
factured by the Westinghouse Electric and Mfg. 
Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa. Fig. 177 shows the one 
for heavy service, comprising a specially designed 




Fig. 177a 
Heavy Service Outfit 

Choke Coil 
Alternating Current 



choke coil, which is to be connected in series with 
the primary of a 2,100 volt, 60 cycle, 125 cycle or 
133 cycle transformer, as the case may be. The 
choke coil is mounted in a cast iron casing, which 
is provided with suitable carrying lugs. It is 



288 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

portable, as it weighs but 200 pounds, although 
it may be, and often is mounted upon a wagon 
or sled. The leads are connected to the choke 
coil through the handles of two contact plugs 
which fit the five plug sockets arranged to allow 
current adjustment. 

' The secondary voltage can be decreased to ap- 
proximately 95 per cent, 87 per cent, 75 per cent, 
65 per cent and 50 per cent of the normal voltage 
by the insertion of the contact plugs in the proper 
sockets. The leads and handles of these plugs are 
insulated with a high test material guaranteed to 
resist successfully much greater potentials than it 
will ever be called upon to stand in actual service. 

It is impossible to injure the transformer, or 
choke coil by making a wrong connection. 

Fig. 178 shows the light service outfit. This de- 
vice is intended for thawing house piping that 
may become frozen. It is enclosed in a cast iron 
case, consisting of top and bottom castings firmly 
bolted together. 

Three plug sockets which are mounted in the top 
casting, are provided for obtaining the variation 
in secondary voltage of the transformer. The 
cables and handles of these plug contacts are also 
carefully insulated in order to avoid any possible 
injury to the operator. The low tension terminals 
are of sufficient size to receive cables of 60,000 
circular mils. This equipment is intended to be 
used on nominal 2,100 volt, 60, 125 or 133 cycle 



ELECTRICAL THAWING APPARATUS 289 

circuits. The secondary voltage can be adjusted 
for either 55 or 35 volts by means of the above 




Fig. 178 
Light Service Outfit 
Alternating Current 

mentioned plug contacts which are connected to 
taps on the winding of the primary. 

A current of 100 amperes can be maintained for , 
one-half hour without undue heating. 

The insulation is specially prepared to with- 
stand severe weather conditions. 



290 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

No oil is used with this transformer, the lam- 
inations of the coils being exposed directly to the 
air. This device can be carried by one man, as 
it weighs but 100 pounds complete. Two substan- 
tial clamps for securing good contact with the 
pipe are included with the outfit. 

Operation.— The outfit is brought as near to 
the frozen pipe as conditions will permit. 

The high tension leads are then connected to 
the main line feeders. The low tension leads are 
attached to opposite ends of the section of pipe 
to be thawed. For service piping in buildings, 
one lead may be connected to a faucet, and the 
other to a convenient hydrant. When street mains 
are to be thawed, two hydrants are often used as 
connections, or, when this is impracticable, exca- 
vations are made which allow the leads to be con- 
nected directly with the pipe. The capacity of the 
transformer used with the heavy service outfit 
(Fig. 177 a ) is from 15 to 25 K. W., adapted to 
a nominal 2,100 volt, 60, 125 or 133 cycle A. C. 
circuit. The transformer used with the light 
service outfit (Fig. 178) has a capacity of 5 K. W. 
adapted to the same kind of current as the larger 
equipment. 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 

Modern architecture is not satisfied with ex- 
tending the building to a height of several hun- 
dred feet in the air above street level, but installs 
sub-basements at a depth which renders it neces- 
sary to use some other means than the force of 
gravitation for removing the sewage and drain- 
age from the building. 

One of the most efficient devices for accom- 
plishing this work is the automatic ejector, of 
which there are several types. 

The apparatus herein described and illustrated 
is known as the Shone System of Sewage and 
Drainage for buildings, and is in successful 
operation in many of the largest buildings in the 
United States. 

The following data regarding this system h 
furnished by the Shone Company of Chicago : 

The principles governing the operation of the 
Shone System are the same in all cases, the deep 
basements of city buildings and the long distances 
to which sewage has often to be conveyed from 
buildings in the country merely presenting varie- 
ties of the same problem. 

In general, the system may be described, as 
follows : 

An air and water tight vessel, known as an 
"Ejector," is placed in a chamber provided for 
it, in such a position that all the sewage and 

291 



292 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

drainage of the building can flow to it by gravi- 
tation. 

The sewers connect directly to the ejector, and 
as the latter can be placed at any depth required, 
there is no difficulty in obtaining sufficient fall to 
enable them to be made perfectly self -cleansing. 

The ejector is furnished with an iron sewage 
discharge pipe, leading to the point of delivery or 
outfall, and it is also connected with a supply of 
compressed air which is constantly maintained. 

As soon as an ejector is filled, the compressed 
air is automatically admitted and the sewage is 
forced out through the discharge pipe, whereupon 
the compressed air is cut off and fresh sewage 
again commences to fill the ejector. 

The operation of emptying the ejector usually 
takes less than half a minute. The time it takes 
to fill depends upon its size and upon the amount 
of sewage coming down the sewers at any given 
moment. 

In this manner the sewage is handled auto- 
matically and is ejected from the building as fast 
as it is produced, without coming in contact in 
any way with the air of the building. 

When an ejector is in operation, it is perfectly 
inoffensive, and it is impossible to tell of what 
the liquid it is handling may be composed. It can 
and should be kept as clean as any other piece 
of machinery, and it is preferably located where 
it will be in plain view. 

The Shone Pneumatic Ejector. Fig. 179 shows 
a sectional view of an ejector of the type usually 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 



293 



employed in buildings. It consists essentially of a 
closed vessel furnished with sewage inlet and dis- 
charge connections, of a diameter suitable to the 



Al« PRESSURE 




Fig\ 179 
Shone Pneumatic Ejector 



size of the ejector and the amount of sewage to 
be pumped. The main sewer of the building is 
connected directly to the inlet pipe A, and the dis- 
charge pipe B is continued to wherever it is de- 
sired to deliver the sewage. In each of these 
connections is placed a check valve which permits 



294 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

a flow in one direction only, that in the inlet pipe 
opening toward the ejector and that in the dis- 
charge pipe away from it. 

On the cover of the ejector is placed the auto- 
matic valve E, to which is connected the air pres- 
sure pipe from a receiver which is kept constantly 
charged, and the air exhaust pipe leading to the 
outside of the building. This valve controls the 
admission of air to, and exhaust from the ejector. 

Inside the ejector are hung two cast-iron bells, 
C and D, linked to each other by an iron rod, in 
reverse positions, as shown. The bronze rod to 
which the bell D is attached passes through a stuf- 
fing box and connects by means of links to a lever 
with a counterweight. The rising or falling of 
these bells operates the automatic valve E through 
a rock shaft connecting it with the center of mo- 
tion of the lever, the counterweight being so 
adjusted as to balance their weight, except when 
the system is thrown out of equilibrium by the 
filling or emptying of the ejector as hereafter 
described. 

As shown in Fig. 179 the bells are in their low- 
est position (the extent of their movement being 
limited to about iy 2 inches), the compressed air 
is cut off from the ejector, and the interior of the 
ejector is open to the atmosphere through the 
automatic valve, and air exhaust pipe. 

The sewage, therefore, can flow through the in- 
let pipe A into the ejector, which it gradually fills 
until it reaches the bell D and commences to rise 
around it. When the latter is sufficiently sub- 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 295 

merged for its buoyancy to overcome the friction 
of the parts, it raises both itself and the lower 
bell, to which it is attached, into their upper posi- 
tions. The consequent movement of the lever 
throws over the automatic valve, thereby closing 
the connection between the inside of the ejector, 
and the atmosphere, and admitting the com- 
pressed air. The check valve in the inlet pipe 
falls upon its seat as soon as the ejector is filled, 
thus preventing any return in that direction, and 
the compressed air, acting upon the surface of 
the sewage in the ejector, immediately commences 
to drive it downwards, and out through the dis- 
charge pipe B. The sewage passes out of the 
ejector until its level falls to such a point that 
the lower bell C is sufficiently exposed for its 
weight to throw the system out of equilibrium in 
the opposite direction. 

The bells consequently fall, which again re- 
verses the automatic valve and returns it to its 
original position. The result of this action is, 
first, to cut off the supply of compressed air, 
whereupon the outflow of sewage ceases, and the 
check valve in the discharge pipe drops to its 
seat, and, secondly, to allow the compressed air 
within the ejector to escape to the atmosphere. 

The sewage which has been ejected cannot re- 
turn past the discharge valve, fresh sewage com- 
mences to flow into the ejector once more, and 
so the action goes on as often as the ejector is 
filled. The positions of the bells are so adjusted 
that the compressed air is not admitted until the 



296 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

ejector is full, and is not allowed to exhaust 
until the ejector is emptied down to the discharge 
level; thus the ejector discharges a specific quan- 
tity each time it operates. 

The principal objects which have been kept in 
view in the design of this machine are the capacity 
for handling rough, unscreened sewage, com- 
bined with certainty of action, simplicity, and 
durability. Although ejectors may be and fre- 
quently have been operated uninterruptedly for 
years with no attention whatever, such treatment 
is not to be recommended. Where continuous 
service night and day is required, as. is usually 
the case, if there is only one ejector, it is difficult 
to give it the ordinary care that any machine 
should have, or to effect the repairs that must 
sooner or later become necessary, and which are 
likely to be needed all the sooner if it is not kept 
continuously in good condition. For this reason, 
as well as to supply reserve capacity in cases of 
emergency ( such as the bursting of a water main, 
or flooding by fire engines), ejectors are general- 
ly installed in duplicate. 

Ejectors are built in various sizes, from a 
capacity of fifty gallons per minute each up to 
as large as desired. 

Air Compressing Apparatus. The air for the 

operation of the ejector is furnished by a com- 
pressor, which delivers it to an air receiver, the 
compressor being in all cases arranged to start 
and stop automatically as the pressure falls or 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 297 

rises in the receiver in accordance with the de- 
mands being made by the ejector. The compres- 
sor is so proportioned as to be capable of supply- 
ing air at a suitable pressure and in sufficient 
volume to operate the ejector at its maximum 
capacity. 

Compressors can be driven by steam, electricity 
or any form of power, the only essential being 
that the power shall be available at all times. 

When steam is employed, a direct acting com- 
pressor is the most suitable for small plants. For 
the larger sizes, or where several ejectors are 
operated by one compressing plant, a duplex 
crank and fly-wheel compressor is generally used. 
The latter is much more economical in the con- 
sumption of steam, but the amount of power re- 
quired to operate ejectors is usually so insignifi- 
cant as to render the question of theoretical 
economy in the compressor altogether subsidiary 
to simplicity and ease of manipulation. 

Where electricity is the motive power, a hori- 
zontal crank and fly-wheel compressor, driven by 
a slow speed compound-wound motor, is generally 
employed. 

Fig. 180 shows such an arrangement, together 
with the automatic switchboard. As being more 
commonly employed than the single outfits, the 
whole apparatus is shown in duplicate, for as it 
also is generally required to be in constant opera- 
tion night and day, there are the same advantages 
in a duplicate installation as have been already 



298 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 







th a 

60 o 

go 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 299 

explained in the case of the ejectors themselves. 

Each side of the switchboard controls its own 
motor, starting and stopping it automatically 
within any given limits of pressure, but there 
is a cross connection by means of which either 
side can be made to control both motors. 

When the air pressure falls, an electrical con- 
nection is made through an adjustable contact 
point, which closes a magnetic switch. This com- 
pletes the main circuit, and, through the inter- 
vention of an automatic starter which gradually 
cuts out resistance, starts the motor slowly with- 
out shock or undue strain. When the pressure 
has risen to the required amount, a connection 
is made with another adjustable contact point, 
which opens the magnetic switch and stops the 
motor. 

Should a chance failure of current occur while 
the motor is running, the magnetic switch im- 
mediately opens, the automatic starter falls to 
its original position, and on the restoration of the 
current the motor is re-started slowly as in the 
first place. 

The compressed air required in most buildings 
for some one or more of the many other purposes 
for which it is now employed, can be obtained 
from the compressing plant that operates the 
ejectors, provided the pressure required is about 
the same. For ordinary purposes, such as those 
of jewelers or other light manufacturers, or for 
blowing the dust out of electrical machinery, etc. r 



300 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

it is only necessary to allow for the additional 
quantity required. Special apparatus, however, 
has generally to be provided for filtering, wash- 
ing and drying the air used by doctors and 
dentists. 

When the pressure required is materially great- 
er than that needed to operate the ejectors 
(which seldom exceeds twenty-five pounds per 
square inch) , it is not generally advisable to com- 
bine the two services, although one side of a 
duplicate plant is occasionally arranged so that 
it can produce a high pressure in a separate 
receiver, which is cross connected so that if need 
be, it can be changed over to run the ejectors. 

As far as the action of the compressing ma- 
chinery and ejectors is concerned, it is the same 
in all cases, but the details of location and ar- 
rangement vary somewhat in accordance with the 
different conditions existing in different classes 
of buildings. 

Buildings in Cities. In buildings in cities the 
ejectors are usually located in some central posi- 
tion, and the compressing apparatus in the engine 
or machinery room. It is preferable to have the 
latter placed where it can be seen by the engineers 
in charge as they go about their duties, as the 
normal action of the compressing machinery is a 
sure index of the like action on the part of the 
ejectors themselves. 

Installation. Fig. 181 shows a pair of ejectors 
in position, with their connecting pipes. The 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 301 

discharge pipe from the ejectors can be led up 
to and along the basement ceiling and down to 
the street sewer, but it is preferable to lay it 
under the basement floor to the curb wall, and 
from there up into the street sewer. It should 
be run independently of all others, as in case of 
any obstruction in it, or the street sewer, the 
ejectors would be liable to force the sewage back 
up any pipes that might be connected to it. The 
air pressure, and air exhaust pipes have merely 
to be run in the most convenient manner, and 
require no special comment. The air exhaust 
pipe, however, which is for the purpose of pro- 
viding a means whereby the exhaust air can 
escape to the outside of the building, needs seldom 
to be run the whole way independently, as it can 
generally be connected to the flue leading from 
the boilers to the chimney, or it may be con- 
nected to some vapor pipe, or ventilating duct. 
Wherever it is possible to spare the room, ejector 
chambers should be left open, or at least partial- 
ly so, and surrounded by a coping and railing. 

If necessary, however, the chamber can be 
entirely covered ; , merely an entrance being left 
which can be closed with an ordinary manhole 
cover. Ejector chambers are usually circular in 
form, and may be built in a variety of ways, 
but they are generally constructed either of brick 
laid in cement or of tank steel. 

The latter form is used where the ground is 
bad, or where there is much water to contend with 
during construction, as unless conditions are 



302 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



favorable, great care is required in the construc- 
tion of brick chambers in order to make them 
water tight. A leaky chamber is a serious in- 
convenience, since the presence of water in it is 




Fig. 181 
Pair of Ejectors in Position 



not only unsightly, but prevents ready access to 
the machines, and is a hindrance to keeping them 
in good condition. 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 303 

A steel chamber is usually designed in the form 
of a cylinder with a convex bottom. 

There should be a ring of angle iron around 
the top in order to stiffen it, and a suitable casting 
should be riveted to the side in order that a water 
tight joint may be made around the inlet pipe 
where it passes through to the ejectors. The steel 
shell is usually built complete, and then lowered 
in one piece onto a bed of concrete, after which 
it is grouted around outside with fine concrete, 
and a level floor inside of the same material. 

In applying this system to a group of build- 
ings the whole of the sewage and drainage of each 
building is collected into one sewer, and the 
ejectors are located at some central point to which 
each of these sewers can be brought with a good 
fall. It is preferable that the air compressing 
plant be located in the main engine or machinery 
room, where it can be cared for by the engineer 
in charge, and where it will at once give notice 
if everything is not operating properly. The air 
pressure pipe to the ejectors may be either cast 
or wrought iron. 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. 

The disposal of sewerage in districts where 
there are no public sewers at hand is often a mat- 
ter of difficulty. Formerly, it was believed that 
if a running body of water, river or creek, was 
at hand, into which the sewerage could be emp- 
tied, the question of adequate sewer systems was 
solved. Frequent epidemics of diphtheria and 
scarlet fever, have called forth careful investiga- 
tion, which has proven that the pollution of 
streams contiguous to domestic water supplies 
with sewerage, is one of the greatest dangers to 
health. This subject is being more closely stud- 
ied every year, which is probably due to the wide 
publicity given it in discussions and reports of 
health departments. It is the purpose to con- 
sider some of the best sanitary systems and ap- 
pliances applicable to the convenience and health 
of country districts. A system which is adaptable 
for one place will not prove an adequate or ef- 
fectual system for another. It lies with the plumb- 
er or builder to study the conditions as they exist, 
and to exercise a little common sense. 

The old out-door closet, with its revolting 
stench and inconvenience, is rapidly disappearing. 
Private and public water service have made it 
304 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 305 

possible to install a modern bath room, even in 
the country, but the sewer disposal in most cases, 
is a puzzling proposition. 

The primitive method of installing a leaching 
cesspool, which is a hole dug in the ground deep 
enough to allow five or six feet of space below the 
inlet end of the house drain pipe, and five or six 
feet wide, walled up with loose stones, the bottom 
left loose and filled with about a foot of small 
stones and the top walled over with a tight arch, 
and the earth filled in to the grade level thereby 
depending on the liquid to ooze away through the 
porous strata, has a great many disadvantages. 
In the first place, in communities where the neigh- 
bors depend on wells for their water supply, it is 
very dangerous, as it invariably pollutes the sub- 
soil in the neighborhood and contaminates the 
well water supply. On a farm where plenty of 
ground is available, if located at a good distance 
from the dwelling, and at a lower level in the op- 
posite direction from the well, it may be used 
without causing any harm. In case such a cess- 
pool is used, the arch should be built up to an 
opening, twenty inches in diameter, and run to 
the surface and closed with an inspection cover 
hermetically sealed by a rubber gasket. 

The system of sub-surface irrigation for sewer- 
age disposal has been very well thought of by our 
best sanitary engineers. It consists of two abso- 
lutely tight cesspools or concrete receptables, at 



^Ofi 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 307 

shown in Fig. 182, built circular in shape, arched 
over, and with extended manholes to the surface, 
with tight inspection covers, also provided with 
an air-vent opening for the escape of gases, one 
tank to receive the drain from the house and to 
retain the solids and grease. The other for the 
liquid sewerage, connected together with an over- 
flow pipe in such a manner that the first basin is 
drained into the second, without disturbing the 
grease and scum in the top of the first one, with a 
baffle plate, as shown, to prevent an underflow 
current from carrying the solids through to the 
second basin. 

In the drawing an inspection basin is shown 
with the syphon for emptying the liquid outside 
of the second basin. The advantage of this is 
that in case of the syphon failing to work prop- 
erly, it is accessible without disturbing the other 
two tanks. Another very frequent construction, 
which, of course, avoids the expense of the inspec- 
tion basin, is to place the syphon in the second 
tank and protect it with a wire screen. The ad- 
vantage of having the inspection basin, of course, 
is obvious, and hardly needs to be further com- 
mented upon here. The opening from the syphon 
is run with a four or six-inch vitrified salt glazed 
sewer pipe with tightly cemented joints, to a point 
down grade, where it is connected with four by 
two inch Y branches to a series of two or three- 
inch porous drain tile, wnich should be laid in a 



308 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

trench about ten inches deep, never deeper, on 
boards, with a very small fall about three or four 
inches per hundred feet, tiles to be laid with 
open joints, and joints to be covered with a half 
ring of vitrified clay or cup, to protect the same 
from filling up when buried. The liquid tank can 
be emptied in several ways, either with a sluice 
valve or a gate valve, both of which necessitates 
personal attention. The advantage of using the 
syphon is that it is automatic. 

There are a great many different kinds of sy- 
phons on the market, and it is sometimes a matter . 
of personal opinion as to which is the best. The 
liquid tank should not be emptied more often 
than once every twenty-four hours, which allows 
plenty of time for the ground to thoroughly drain, 
and to breathe in more oxygen, and then in a vol- 
ume sufficiently large enough to fill all the drain 
pipes at once, to insure an even distribution. This 
system is, of course, preferably adapted to a 
porous or gravel soil. In places where clay soil 
conditions exist, the soil should be drained at 
least four feet below the level with porous drain. 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY. 

The procuring of a water supply in the country 
depends largely upon the surrounding conditions. 
Of course, when the source of the water supply 
is at a higher level than the house, a gravity sys- 
tem is the least complicated, and very often the 
cheapest. When the house is located at a reason- 
able height above the water supply, which could 
be made to supply an eight or ten-foot head, the 
hydraulic ram could be used. Earns will work, 
and work successfully, where the spring or brook 
is only three feet higher than the ram head, as 
the height or head increases the more powerfully 
the ram operates, and its ability to force water to 
a greater elevation and distance correspondingly 
strengthens. The best wearing results will be se- 
cured where the head or fall does not exceed ten 
feet; the head on the diseharge pipe may be from 
five -to ten times the head on the drive pipe. As a 
specific example : It might be said a fall of ten feet 
from brook or spring to the ram is sufficient to 
raise water to any point, say 150 feet above the 
machine, while the same amount of fall would also 
raise water to a point considerably higher, though 
the quantity of water discharged will be propor- 
tionately diminished as the height and distance 
increase. 

309 



310 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Rule for Estimating Delivery of Water. Multi- 
ply the number of gallons supplied to the ram 
per minute by three, and this product by the 
number of feet in head or fall of drive pipe, and 
divide by four times the number of feet to be 
raised. The result is the number of gallons raised 
per minute. Example: With a supply of ten gal- 
lons per minute delivered to a ram under a head 
or fall of ten feet, how much water can be raised 
to an elevation of 100 feet? 

10 X 3 X 10 

—.75 gallons per minute. 

100X4 

To obtain a water supply which will deliver 
water at any faucet in a house, yard or barn, it is 
necessary not only to pump the water, but to 
have some means of storing it under pressure. 
The elevated tank delivers it by gravity pressure, 
and, when used, should be placed at least eight 
to ten feet above the highest point from which 
the water is to be drawn, to insure a respectable 
velocity of discharge. 

Compressed Air System. The principle of de- 
livering water and other liquids by pressure of 
compressed air is very old, but it was not until 
recently that this principle was employed to fur- 
nish domestic water supply. 

One of the greatest advantages of the com- 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 311 

pressed air system is that it does away with the 
elevated tank, and there are a great many defects 
in the elevated tank system. If placed in the at- 
tic, it is not high enough to afford a sufficient 
pressure to be any protection against fire. An- 
other objection is the weight of the tank, when 
filled with water, is very liable to crack the plas- 
tering and to leak. Another serious defect of the 
elevated tank, when placed in an attic or on a 
tower is the exposure to weather, in the winter 
it freezes and in the summer it becomes warm. 

In the compressed air system the tank is placed 
either in the ground below the frost line or in the 
basement, and the water is pumped into the bot- 
tom of the tank with a force pump, which may be 
operated by hand, windmill, gas engine or hot- 
air engine. Another opening in the bottom de- 
livers water to the faucet in the house, yard or 
barn. As the water is pumped into the bottom 
of the tank the air above it, not having an outlet, 
is compressed. This pressure is increased and 
maintained by an automatic air valve. It does 
away with the elevated tank, and delivers water 
at an even temperature all year around. The 
tank and pipes leading to and from it are protect- 
ed from the weather. A pressure of fifty pounds 
is easily obtained, which equals the pressure from 
an elevated tank one hundred and ten feet high. 
This affords first-class fire protection and enables 
the country residents to have all the sanitary con- 



312 PKACTICAL PLUMBING 

veniences of a city home. A double system of 
this kind can also be installed, one for furnishing 
well or drinking water to the fixtures, and an- 
other one supplying soft water from the cistern. 

In Fig. 183 a steel storage tank is shown buried 
in the ground below the frost line, water is 
pumped into it by hand or windmill. This pump 
forces both air and water into the tank at the 
same time. A connection run to the surface near 
the house to a yard hydrant with hose connec- 
tion furnishes water for sprinkling and fire pro- 
tection 1 , another branch supplies water to the 
barn, under pressure. 

In Fig. 184 a steel storage tank is shown placed 
in' the basement and supplied with a hand pump. 
These two illustrations will serve to give some 
idea of the extent to which a system of this kind 
can be put to use. The tank is practically inde- 
structible, and, unlike the elevated tank, requires 
no expense after it has been put in. When the 
tank is one-half full of water, the air which origi- 
nally filled the entire tank will be compressed 
into the upper half of it and will exert a pressure 
of fifteen pounds to the square inch, and if a 
straight supply pipe was run from the bottom of 
the tank, this air pressure would force the water 
to a height of thirty-three feet. For ordinary 
elevation the best results are obtained by main- 
taining in the tank excess air pressure of ten 
pounds, that is, enough air to give ten pounds 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 



313 




3MVA JJO l/1H<?->f 
3A1J/A V03HQ- 



314: 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 





FIG. 185. THBEE-PIECE SYSTEM 



3M 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 315 

pressure when the tank contains no water. Thus 
equipped, a tank will deliver twice as much water 
as otherwise. 

Most of the country towns at the present day 
are supplied with efficient water systems, and it is 
a very easy matter to install a hydraulic system 
which supplies hot and cold soft water to every 
fixture in the house automatically and all of the 
time. One of the principal objects desired in the 
hydraulic system is to utilize the waste water 
from the hydraulic pump so that there will be 
no loss, which is quite an item when the water 
is paid for at so much per thousand feet. 

The system shown in Fig. 185 is a very simple 
and inexpensive one. The city water supply is 
run direct to the hydraulic pump, and the city 
water passing through it is piped direct to the 
fixtures at which cold hard water is desired. In 
the drawing this pipe supplies the closet tank and 
one faucet over the lavatory for drinking purposes 
in the bathroom, also one faucet over the sink 
and two connections to laundry tub, which is very 
convenient, as the cold water can be utilized for 
rinsing purposes, thereby saving a great deal of 
the soft water. The operation of the same is, that 
when any of these five faucets are opened, it per- 
mits the city water to pass through the pump and 
at the same time operate the pump, which pumps 
soft water from the cistern to the tank in the 
attic from which a pipe is run down to the base- 



316 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

ment with branches taken off at the different 
floors to supply cold soft water, hence, to the hot 
water heater tank, from there on to the heater, 
back to the tank and around to the different fix- 
tures supplying hot soft water. The return pipe 
prevents a dead end which necessitates wasting 
the soft water before the hot water begins to flow. 

A method is shown whereby it is possible when 
the cistern is emptied to fill either the city water 
supply only with city water,, or the entire system 
without its passing through the pump by the ma- 
nipulation of three globe valves, designated as A, 
B and C. When the pump is pumping cistern 
water to the attic tank, valve B and C are closed, 
and valve A is opened. When the cistern is emp- 
tied, and it is desired to fill only the cold city 
water pipe with water, leave valve C closed, close 
valve A and open valve B, which permits the 
water to flow into the cold water pipe without 
passing through the pump. If it is desired to fill 
the entire system with city water, all that is neces- 
sary is to open valve C, which permits the water 
to flow up to the attic tank and down through 
the balance of the system. When this is done, 
valve D on the overflow pipe should be closed af- 
ter the water begins to overflow, and not before, 
as the system would become air-bound. 

An overflow pipe is shown leading from the at- 
tic tank to the cistern within the house. If it is 
possible to run this overflow pipe out onto the 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 317 

roof so that the overflow will return to the cistern 
through the eavestrough and downspout pipe to 
the cistern, it is best to do so, as the cistern water 
then has a chance to become aerated. The pipe to 
supply the sill cock or yard hydrant for sprink- 
ling purposes should be taken off at a point before 
the supply to pump, to prevent the unnecessary 
work of the pump when sprinking. In case of a 
basement closet being installed, a connection can 
be taken from the city water supply pipe run to 
the laundry tub, three-quarter-inch galvanized 
iron pipe is sufficiently large enough for all of 
the main supply pipes with one-half -inch branches 
to the different fixtures. These hydraulic rams 
are manufactured so as to work, and work suc- 
cessfully, at as low a pressure as ten pounds per 
square inch. 

Septic Tanks. In localities such as small vil- 
lages, and on farms where there is no regular 
sewer system, modern plumbing makes it possible 
to equip the home with a complete water supply 
and sanitary plumbing system. A system of this 
kind requires a septic tank for disposal of the 
sewage. The selection of a type or system of sep- 
tic disposal that is best adapted to a given case 
will depend upon several factors among which 
may be mentioned: 

(a) Number of persons to be served. 

(b) Amount of water available. 



318 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



(c) Conditions of ground levels, strata, por- 
osity, etc. 

(d) Available point of disposal. 

Knowing these, the plumber will be able to de- 
cide upon the requirements of the case. The fol- 



Monhoie - 




Vert/cot Cross Sect/on 

Fig. 186 

lowing description and illustrations of an efficient 
septic tank and system of sewage disposal are 
taken from a recent issue of "Domestic Engineer- 
ing. ' ' 

The material used is concrete, the interior sur- 
face being made as smooth as possible. 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 



319 



Referring to Fig. 186 it will be seen that the 
tank has a partition or baffle which slopes to the 
left at the bottom, thns dividing the tank into two 
water holding compartments. 

Fig. 187 is a plan view of the tank showing 
the relative positions of the inlet, the outlet and 
me sludge pipes. The manhole also is shown by 



i 



- Inlet 



¥ 



Sludge 
(Pipe 



Plan V/ew 

Fig. 187 



dotted lines. It will be noted that the sewage 
enters at one end of the smaller or left hand com- 
partment shown in Fig. 186 and leaves at the 
opposite end. 

Fig. 188 is a longitudinal section through the 
tank, showing inlet, outlet, and sludge pipes, also 
the baffle, etc. It will be observed that the inlet 



320 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



and outlet pipes are on the same level, and that 
the inlet pipe discharges on the surface, while 
the outlet has a tee dipping down into the water. 
Some engineers prefer to have a tee dipping 
down into the water at the inlet also, which no 
doubt is an advantage. The sewage flows through 

Manhole- 



(T=r 



•"^ 



sp 



5r 



,V 



-*3* 



./' 




S/udoe 



Lonqitudinot. Section 
Fig. 188 



this compartment only, the direction of flow being 
shown by the arrows in Fig. 188. It should be 
noted that there is an open slit about 4 inches 
wide extending the full length of the tank and 
below the partition. All solid matter in the sew- 
age is supposed to settle and slide down through 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 



321 



this slit from whence it falls into the deeper com- 
partment shown in Fig. 186. There is no sewage 
flow through that compartment, its function being 
to receive the solids and retain them during their 
period of putrefaction. It thus prevents the solid 
matter from putrefying in the other chambers, 
and unduly fouling the water flow. The bottom 



= /// :r /// = ///2T //i s /// =/// p f'i i L 

£X/Ti "/Tide //i-dm-ait 
W =r Jit *' jti a m jS i// ~ 



-/-6- 



7 s /„ =3 /// =i ///=./// 3F 
'/I S /JJ S ///. = / '-" =3 '" = 
s /// = //I ^s> /// -2. /// = AV 

a /// ? ; /// =. /// s in-^ m 
IH"ZS.Uis in e t/t =■ J/t s 




Fig. 189 

of the smaller chamber slopes and is smooth in 
order to facilitate the sliding of the solids. 

The partition is so arranged at the bottom that 
gases rising from the sludge will not get up into 
the small compartment. This will be apparent 
from an examination of Fig. 186 and noting the 
4 inch overlap. The bottom of the sludge pit 
is sloped down to center where the sludge pipe 
hangs with an open mouth. The valve on the 
sludge pipe is operated by a wheel handle ex- 



322 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

tending up near the manhole. The sludge pipe 
may discharge into a regular sludge bed, or into 
some other convenient place. In drawing off the 
sludge, all that is necessary is to open the valve, 
and the hydraulic head above the valve level will 
drive the sludge out through the pipe. It will 
stop running when the water is level with the 
valve. The manhole is located so as to afford 
easy access to both chambers, and also to the 
sludge valve. 

In proportioning tanks of this kind the smaller 
tank is the most important. On a basis of 40 
gallons per person per day, this tank may be made 
for a 10 hour retention of the sewage. In other 
words its capacity may equal about one-half the 
sewage discharge of 24 hours. The size of the 
other compartment is less important. It should 
be large enough to require cleaning out not of tener 
than once a year for domestic work. The length 
of travel from inlet to outlet of tank is important 
For domestic work it may be about 6 feet. The 
inlet can be greatly improved by turning it down 
with a tee. The depth of a septic tank depends 
upon the depth of the cellar or basement from 
which the sewer pipe is taken. In all cases this 
pipe should be below the frost line and should 
have a fall or pitch of at least one-eighth of an 
inch in ten feet in the direction of the septic tank 
which should be located some distance from the 
house; fifty feet or more. Generally speaking, 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 



323 



the bottom of the septic tank should be at least 
three feet lower than the floor of the basement. 
The vitrified sewer pipe is trapped outside the 
building with an ordinary S trap ventilated. 

Fig. 189 shows a longitudinal section of an- 
other type of septic tank in which the inlet and 




From Septic! 



Section 



To Disposal Poinr* 



T rom Sepf/c Tank 



LZ3 



To Disposal Point 



Plan View 

Fig-. 190 



outlet pipes are both fitted with open tees thus 
allowing free circulation of air through the sewer 
pipe lines and through the tank. This tank has 
two baffles, thus forming three compartments. 
The length is shown in the cut. The depth and 
width should be sufficient to make the tank large 
enough to hold 6 cubic feet of sewage per person 



324 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



served. The depth of water in the tank should be 
at least three feet. 

Septic tanks if properly built should give good 
results in most cases where a fairly good separa- 
tion of solids is required, and where the effluent 
is required to be reasonably clear. But the efflu- 
ent is not yet fit to go into rivers or other streams 



Monhole- 




^"Concrete. ;-". 

Automotic Siphon 
4" 



i£fe 



To Filter 



Fig. 191 

of water. It should be filtered or otherwise 
treated after discharge from the septic tank. 

The filtering system illustrated in Fig. 190, and 
the dozing chamber and siphon shown in Fig. 191 
are from designs presented in a recent issue of 
"Domestic Engineering ' ' and their action is said 
to be very efficient. 

Fig. 190 shows a plan view, and section of an 
underground sand filter that should do good work 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 325 

in purifying the sewage by holding back the ma- 
jor portion of the solids that may have escaped 
from the tank. The effluent flows into the top 
of the filter through a number of field tile pipes 
in such a manner as to be evenly distributed over 
the filter bed, see plan view. It then percolates 
down through the filter bed and is collected at 
the bottom by a series of underdrains which carry 
away the filtered water and deliver it to the avail- 
able point of disposal. In using a filter it is al- 
ways advisable to supply the sewage to it in peri- 
odical doses in order to obtain the most satisfac- 
tory results. This may be done by means of a 
sewage siphon located between the septic tank 
and the filter. Such a siphon and dozing cham- 
bers is shown in section in Fig. 191. The effluent 
from the septic tank enters intermittently, some- 
times in small streams, sometimes in larger 
streams. At other times it is a prolonged trickle. 
The dozing chamber fills up to high water line, 
H. L. when the siphon begins to operate. It 
promptly discharges the contents over the filter 
bed. When the water level reaches line L. L., the 
siphon stops, the action being entirely automatic, 
both in starting and in stopping. In the opera- 
tion of a septic tank care should be taken to pre- 
vent the flow of greasy water from kitchen sinks 
into the sewer. Down spouts from the roof of 
the building should not connect with the sewer 
pipe when a septic tank is used. 



INDEX 

A 

PAGE 

Air composition of 227 

Air compressibility of 227 

Air vent pipe for house drain 12- 13 

Autogenous soldering — lead burning 108-112 

Burning vertical seams 110-111 

Compressed oxygen and coal gas Ill 

Definition of term 108-109 

Explanation of process 109-111 

Most simple form of 109 

Skill required in 108 

Use of red hot copper bit 111-112 

Where used 108 

Automatic sewage ejector 291-303 

Action of device 299-300 

Air compressing apparatus 296-299 

Construction of .293-296 

For use in city buildings 300 

Installation 300-303 

Principles of operation 291-292 

Shone pneumatic ejector 292-300 

Sources of power for operating 297 

Switch board and motor ..297-299 

Automatic syphon 308 

B 

Basement drains 18- 24 

Backwater valve — function of 19- 20 

Combination strainer and back water seal. 23 

Deep water-seal for 22 

Bathtub equipment 142-152 

Shower bath — Deshler type 148 

326 



INDEX 327 

PAGE 

Sitz bath — roll rim 150 

Speakman mixing valve 142-146 

Branched joints — wiping of 101-103 

Badly shaped joint 102 

Joint made by using a thick cloth 101-103 

Proper methods of making 102-103 

Brass pipes — weight of per lineal foot 185 

C 

Cesspools 139-140 

Circular 140 

Hydrant 139 

Rectangular — for cellar 140 

Stable use 139-140 

Slop sink — with bell trap and strainer. . . .139-140 

Chicago Plumbing Code 241-285 

Area drains — when to trap 268 

Barn drainage 276-277 

Bath tub — drum trap 256 

Blow off pipes 267 

Catch basins — where prohibited 269 

Catch basins — for kitchen wastes 269-271 

Catch basins — when to dispense with.... 271 

Cellar drains 268 

Chimney ventilation 252 

Connections outside of buildings 246 

Connected wastes . . . . „ 256 

Cleanouts — tapping pipes 250-251 

Definition of terms 217-248-249 

Drainage, and vent fittings 254-255 

Drains connected with sewers 246-247 

Earthenware trap connections 275 

Ejectors 254 

Fee — when to be paid .' 282 

Fittings — quality — cleanout fittings 250 

Fittings — prohibited 251 



328 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 
Chicago Plumbing Code — 

Floor washes in basement 268 

Gas water heaters — permit to install 283 

Gas water heaters — structural requirements 284 

High pressure boiler — supply tank 244 

House boilers — sediment pipes 262 

House tanks — linings prohibited 266 

Inspection certificate 282 

Inspection test 277-278-279 

Iron pipe — where used 252 

Iron pipe — quality — weights 249-250 

Lead pipe — kind permitted 242 

Lead pipe — not to extend within partitions 252 

Lead pipe — wiped joints — brass pipe 252 

Long hopper closets 263-264 

Metal connections — requirements 245-246 

New plumbing — repairs 244-245 

Old work remodeled 279 

Open plumbing 274 

Overflow pipes — connections of 261 

Peppermint test for alterations 279 

Permit for use of water 241-242 

Pipe supports — hooks prohibited 251 

Pipe joints to be filled 251 

Pipes above main building. 253 

Plans—plan and elevation 281-282 

Plumber's notification — inspection 277 

Prohibited closets 274 

Rain water leaders — where prohibited. . . . 266 

Rain water leaders — when to trap 266-267 

Rain water leaders — connections 272 

Refrigerator wastes — sizes — traps 261-262 

Revent— omitted— when 273-274 

Revented washout closets 275 

Service pipe — joints 242-243 

Single tap for several buildings 243 



INDEX 329 

PAGE 

Chicago Plumbing Code — 

Slip joints — ground joints 276 

Soil and waste pipes — when to extend. . . . 253 

Soil and waste pipes — sizes of 247-255 

Special permits 276-277 

Stop cocks 243 

Steam pipes — condensers — vents 267 

Straight tees — where prohibited 252 

Tapping street main 242 

Temperature of water entering sewer. . . .267-268 

Trap — where prohibited 255 

Traps — placing of — water seal 256-257 

Trap revents — concealed partitions 255-256 

Urinals— automatic flushing of 272-273 

Urinals — automatic flush tanks for 262-263 

Urinals — construction 272 

Urinals — flush prohibited materials 272 

Urinals — wastes — screens 273 

Vent pipes — sizes of 253-254 

Vent pipes — revents 257-258 

Vent pipes — in residences 258-259 

Vent pipes — lengths of horizontal 260 

Vent pipes — reconnected 260 

Vent pipes — reconnected — exceptions .... 274 

Ventilation — water closet 279 

Vertical lines of pipe — floor rests * 251 

Vertical pipes through roof 252-253 

Waste pipes in four story buildings 259 

Waste pipes — horizontal prohibited 254 

Water closets — revent 257 

Water closets — flush tanks 262 

Window area in toilet compartments. .. .280-281 

Water closets under sidewalks 264-266 

Wood sinks and tubs — where prohibited. . 268 

Cleanouts — with brass trap screw 137-138 

Cleanouts — with hand hole and cover. .. .137-138 

Condensation — what it is 226 



330 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 

Country water supply 309-317 

Compressed air system 310-315 

Delivery of water — estimating 310 

Hydraulic ram — operation of 309-310 

Pumping apparatus 312-314 

Steel storage tank — underground 312-313 

Steel storage tank — in basement 313-314 

Storage tank system 310-314 



D 

Delivery of water — rule for estimating 310 

Diameters, areas, and circumferences of 

circles 238-239-240 

Disposal of sewage 304-308 

Automatic syphon . 308 

Concrete basins — system of 308 

Epidemics — causes of 304 

Leaching cesspool 305 

Out door water closet 304-305 

Pollution of drinking water supply 305 

Sub-surface irrigation 305-306-308 

Systems adapted to localities 304 

Drain pipes — capacities of 27 

Drain and trap for hospital operating rooms. . 22- 24 

Drainage fittings 113-140 

Cross tapped for iron pipe 117-118 

Double Y 118-119 

Double half Y-branch 118-119 

Half Y 118-119 

Half Y-saddle hub 119-120 

Inverted Y-branch 119-120 

Plain cross 118-119 

Plain T-branch — sanitary T-branch 117-118 

Quarter bends, with heel and side outlets. 114-115 
Sanitary cross 118-119 



INDEX 331 

PAGE 
Drainage fittings — 

Sanitary cross tapped for iron pipe. 117118 

Sanitary bend — long quarter 114-115 

Soil and waste pipe fittings 113-121 

Soil pipe bends— 1/16 to y A 113-114-115 

T-branch soil pipe 114-115-116 

T-saddle hub 119-120 

T-branch, Y-branch — trap screw 121 

Ventilating branch pipe — plain 119-121 

Ventilating cap— Y-saddle hub 119-120 

Y-branch— half Y-branch 114-117 

Drainage pipe — size of 10- 12 

Drainage pipe — method of laying 10- 12 

Drainage system — correct installation 12 

Drinking fountains — solid porcelain 172-175 

Drinking fountains — marble 173-174 



E 

Electrical thawing device 286-290 

Advantages in use of 286 

Capacity of 290 

Current required to operate 289 

Weight of 290 

Westinghouse heavy service outfit. , 287-288 

Westinghouse light service outfit 289-290 

Evaporation — explanation of process 225 

Equation of pipes 220-221 



F 

Fire clay — substitute for 235 

Fire engine house — plumbing for 37-40 

Fresh air inlets 37 -38 

Fresh air inlets for soil pipe 13 

Friction of liquids in pipes 226-227 



332 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

H 

PAGE 

Hopper traps 130-137 

Half S-trap, high pattern for iron pipe. .130-131 

Half S-trap, plain with hub vent 134-135 

Half S-trap, with hand hole and cover. . . .134-135 

S-trap — high pattern for lead pipe 130-131 

S-trap— plain for lead pipe 131-132-133 

S-trap — high pattern hand hole and cover.. 131-132 

S-trap — high pattern, hub and vent 131-132 

S-trap — high pattern, for iron pipe 133-134 

Three-quarter S-trap — high pattern — hub 

vent " 130-131 

Trap caps — brass 136-137 

Horizontal joints — wiping of 96 

Horizontal joints — three examples of 96 

Horse power — definition of 225 

Horse power — pounds water required to pro- 
duce 225 

Hot water plumbing 197-218 

Combination reservoir and heater 209-210 

Explosion of water back — cause of 204 

Gas heated device — connections for. .205-206-207 

Gravity supply tank system 200-201 

Hot water — natural course of flow 203 

Kitchen boiler— function of 201-202 

Kitchen boiler — connections of 207-208 

Noise in pipes — causes of 203-204 

Simple system — hot water supply 197-198 

System for supplying three floors 199-200 

Vertical, or horizontal boilers — connections 208 

Hot water supply 186-196 

Cold water supply pipe — requirements of. . 188 

Cylinder system — advantages of 186 

Draw off pipes — connections for 189 

Draw off pipes— path of 192-193 

Emptying cock — location of 188 



INDEX 333 

PAGE 

Expansion pipe — function of 189 

Expansion pipe — path of 187 

Flow pipe — path of 186-187 

Flow pipe — path of in tank system 191-192 

Return pipe — path of 186-187 

Return pipe — path of in tank system 192 

Secondary return — location of 189-190 

Sizes of tank and cylinder 195 

Water circulation in system 189 

House drain — function of 8 

House sewer — connection of to main sewer... 14 

House sewer — pitch of, toward main sewer. . . 14- 15 

House sewer — size of — how determined 15 

Hydraulic ram — operation of 309-310 

J 

Joint wiping 92-107 

How to use the cloth 98-99 

Importance of skill in 92- 93 

Length of joint 93 

Thin cloth — objections to 97- 98 

Wiping cloth — manipulation of 95- 96 

Wiping cloth — making of 97-98 

Wiping cloth — material for 94- 95 

L 

Lead — fusing temperature of 68 

Lead — specific gravity of 65 

Lead traps— full S— half S— P 126-127-128 

Liquid measure — table of 229 

M 

Manhole for house drainage system „ . 10 

Measurement of wrought iron pipe 176 j -176° 

Modern stable — plumbing for 41- 43 



334 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

P 

PAGE 

Pipe — area of — how to find 227 

Pipe — copper — weight of per lineal foot 185 

Pipe — to find number of gallons in one foot 

length 232 

Pipe — to find weight of lead pipe when diam- 
eter and thickness are known 232 

Pipe supports 37 

Plan of piping for basement 25- 26 

Plaster of paris — to prevent setting too quickly 234 

Plumber's solder — how to make 77-78-79 

Plumber's solder — burning — danger of ...... . 80-81 

Plumber's solder — zinc poisoned 81 

Plumber's tools 210-212-216 

Plumbing — recent improvements in 7- 8 

Pressure — action of upon a liquid 226 

R 

Rain leaders 16 

Roof connections . . 34-35-36 

Roughing in 25- 52 

Meaning 'of 25 

Plumbing for two story residence 43- 52 

Plumbing for modern stable 41- 42 

Refrigerators — waste and vent pipes 43 

Rubber force cup for cleaning bath tub 215 

Running trap for house drain 12 

Rust joint — cement for . . . 235 



S 

Sanitary plumbing 141-176 

Bathroom — construction 141-142 

Bathtub — corner porcelain type 144-145 

Bathtub — porcelain enameled 144-147-148 

Bathtub — porcelain roll rim 142-144 



INDEX 335 

PAGE 
Bathtub — sitz, with nickel plated fittings . 144-149 
Bathtub — showing proper connections. . .144-152 

Bathtubs— types of 142-149 

Footbath — enameled porcelain 144-150 

Spray, and shower baths — rubber curtain. .144-151 

Septic Tank System 317-325 

Sewer — requirements of 8 

Sewer pipe — materials — methods of laying. ... 8 

Sewage disposal — basic principles of 15 

Service pipes — table of capacities 183 

Sheet copper — how to clean 234-235 

Sheet lead — table, weights and thickness.... 196 

Soil pipe 27- 37 

Cutting of 27 

Joints — materials required for 30 

Making joints in 29- 30 

Running long line of 30- 33 

Under basement floor 37 

Solder — for plumber's work 62- 76 

Alloy that expands in cooling 74 

Composition of plumber's solder 62- 63 

Contraction in cooling 73- 74 

Effect of heat on solids 71-72 

Expansion of solder when melting 73 

Flowing of 68- 69 

Fluxes for 69 

How to judge good solder 63- 64 

Indications of impure solder 64- 65 

Result of mixing tin and lead 72- 73 

Rule governing hardness of 71 

Soldering fluids 69 

Sulphur as a flux 66- 67 

Zinc— detrimental to solder 65- 66 

Zinc — how to extract from solder 66 

Soldering copper — care of 236 

Soldering fluxes 82- 83 



336 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 

Steam tight joint — how to make. ., 235 

Store, or office building — plan for plumbing of. 37- 39 

T 

Table — decimal parts of an inch 75 

Table — fall per foot for sewers and soil pipes. 16 

Table — melting points of various alloys 75 

Table — to find weight of metals in pounds. ... 76 

Table — weight of one square foot of various 

metals J 76 

Tanks — rule for finding capacities in gallons. . 230 

Thawing device — electrical 286-290 

Three story tenement — plumbing for 30- 32 

Tin — specific gravity of 65 

Tinning iron — method of 83 

Traps 53-61-122-218 

Back venting — proper method of 57- 58 

Bower trap 61 

Counter vent 217 

Caulking joints in 218 

Cudell trap 60- 61 

Drum trap 59 

Full S-trap J23 

Full S-trap— with top vent 125-126 

Function of trap in sewer pipe 53 

Half S-trap 123 

Half S-trap, with hand hole and cover. . .123-125 

Half S-trap, with top vent 125-126 

How a trap may be syphoned 56- 57 

Kinds of traps for sewage 217 

Loss of seal in a trap 54- 56 

Non-syphon traps 57- 60 

P-trap 54- 55 

Purpose of traps 217 

Running trap — hub vent 126-127 

Running trap — hand hole and cover 122 



INDEX 337 

PAGE 

S-trap — advantages of 54 

S-trap, with hand hole and cover 123-124-125 

S-traps — extra long — plain and vented. . .129-130 

Self scouring trap 60- 61 

Syphon trap 53 

Three-quarter S-trap 54-55-123 

Three-quarter S-trap, with hand hole. .. .123-125 

Three-quarter S-trap, with top vent 125-126 

Trap for house drainage system 10- 11 

Two-hub vent-traps 122 

U 

Upright joints — wiping of 99-101 

Urinals 170-173-176 b 

Connections for 171-173 

Corner porcelain urinal 176 

Flat-back porcelain style 175 

Individual stall urinals 170-176 a 

Useful information 224-240 

Air — volume of, in one pound 225 

Anthracite coal — cu. ft. in one ton of 225 

Anthracite coal — wt., of one bushel 225 

Area of pipe — how to find 227 

Barrel — to find contents of 231 

Boiler horse power 224 

Boiler scale — how to remove 233 

Circle — to find circumference of 230 

Circle — to find area of 230 

Circle — to find diameter from given area. 230 
Circle — to find diameter of, to equal area 

of a given square 230 

Cement— how to make 233-234 

Cement — for iron and stone 234 

Cement — for leaky steam boilers 234 

Cleaning rusted iron 233 

Cleaning rusted brass 233 



338 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 
Useful information — 

Cleaning marble „ , . . 233 

Coal required per sq. ft. of grate — lbs.. , . . 224 

Copper pipes — weight of, per lineal foo£ ., 185 

Delivery of water — rule for calculating... 310 
Diameters, circumferences, areas of circks.238-240 

Evaporation of water „ . 224 

Equalizing pipes . .. 228 

Heat unit — definition of 224 

Heat units required per horse power.... 225 

Heat units in 1 lb. anthracite coal 225 

Rectangle — to find area of 229 

Thermometers — comparison of 227 

Triangle — to find area of 229 

Water — expansion of, in freezing 228 

Water — discharge of through given orifice 

at different pressures 228 

Water — height of column for 1 lb. pressure 

per sq. in 229 

Water — number of gallons in 1 cu. ft.. .... 229 

Water — pressure upon side of tank .231-232 

Water — point of greatest density 228 

Water — to find head in feet ; pressure being 

known 231 

Water — to find pressure in lbs. per sq. in. . . 230 
Water — to find required head for given ve- 
locity 230-231 

Water — velocity of flow through pipe .... 231 
Water volume and weight of 1 gallon . . . .228-229 

Water — weight of one cubic inch 229 

Wrought iron pipes — measurement of . , . . 224 



V 

Vacuum — meaning of 225 

Vent-opening — location of for house drain .... 10 

Vent-pipes — location of 27- 28 



INDEX 339 

PAGE 

Vertical section for two story building 25-28 

Vitrified sewer pipe 8- 10 

Connection with iron pipe 8- 9 

Method of installation 9 

Trap and vent opening 9- 10 

W 

Washbowls '. 170-176 s 

Acto-pop up waste 174-176 

Connections for 176 a -176 b 

Drilling slab for clamp holes 174 

Half circle, roll edge — high back. . . 176 d 

Independent bowls 176 c -176 d 

Making joint between bowl and slab 174-175 

Relieving drain pipes 176 f -176 k 

Roll edge bowl — removable strainer. .. .176 d -176 e 
Roll edge slab and bowl 174 

Water 219-227 

Boiling point of 221-227 

Characteristics of 219 

Composition of 219 

Exansion of when heated 225-227 

Expansion of when changed to steam .... 225 

Freezing temperature 221-222 

Hardness of water 222 

Head — meaning of explained 220 

Impurities, poisons, etc., in water 222 

Maximum density — point of 222 

Pressure of, in pounds per sq. in 219-220 

Pressure of, at different elevations 184 

Purif)nng by aeration 223 

Tests of for purity 236-237 

Unit of measurement for 219 

Weight of— per cubic foot 219-224 

Water closets 152-166 

Haas flush valve 154-159 



340 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 

Public buildings — closets for 164-166 

Seat operated types 160-161-162 

Self ventilating closet 160 

Syphon jet combination 157-159 

Water closets — connections for 164-170 

Water pipes and fixtures 27- 28 

Water service 177-240 

Corporation cock 177 

First step in installation of 177 

Size of service leading to building 177 

Service pipes in building 178 

Stop cocks in building 178 

Stop cocks — where required 177-178 

Tapping street main 177 

Testing the water service 179-181 

Testing — with air pressure 180 

Testing — with peppermint test 180-181 

Testing — with smoke test 180 

Testing — with hydraulic pressure 179 

Wiped joints — preparation of 84-91-104-105 

Importance of care in 84 

Joints for tin-lined pipes 105 

Joints for copper pipes 105-106 

Method of tinning copper 106-107 

Method of strengthening copper pipe 107 

Preparing pipe ends — three methods of . . 90 

Preparing pipe ends — care required in... 91 

Rasping — instructions for 87- 88 

Skill required in 86 

Soil — best method of making 88 

Soil — proper ingredients for 88 

Soil pot and tool 88 

Soiling a pipe — correct method of 88- 89 

Solder — proper heat for 89 

Tools required for 86 

Wrought iron pipe — table of 181-182 









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